psych midterm all units

Hindsight Bias:

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable for the purpose of a study.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore causation and find underlying principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Survey

 A research method involving questionnaires or interviews to gather data on people's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

Experiment

A research method where variables are manipulated to determine cause and effect.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used as a benchmark.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Population

The entire group of individuals relevant to a particular study.

Random Sample

A subset of a population where each member has an equal chance of being selected.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population.

Convenience Sample

A sample drawn from a part of the population that is close at hand.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment.

Placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in a experiment

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in a experiment

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether observed differences are likely due to chance.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimental effect.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Quantitative Measures

Data that can be quantified and is typically numerical.

Qualitative Measures:

Data that is descriptive and conceptual.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group.

Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Trap

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Ingroup vs. Outgroup Phenomenon

The tendency to favor one's own group (ingroup) and view others (outgroup) as different or inferior.

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

The perception that members of the outgroup are more similar to each other than they really are.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take action when others are present.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A study by Philip Zimbardo that demonstrated the power of social roles and authority in influencing behavior.

Groupthink

A mode of thinking where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

Asch Experiment

A study on conformity showing that people will conform to a group's incorrect answer even when they know it's wrong.

Milgram Study

An experiment on obedience to authority figures, demonstrating people's willingness to perform acts conflicting with their conscience.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

A persuasion strategy involving getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up with a smaller one.

Obedience

Complying with instructions or orders from an authority figure.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match those of a group.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the body.

Axon

The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of neurons that receive messages from other neurons.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons, increasing transmission speed.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland, regulating growth and controlling other glands.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, and learning.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid):

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Cerebral Cortex

 The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Sensation

The process of detecting physical energy from the environment and converting it into neural signals.

Perception

The brain’s interpretation of sensory information to give it meaning.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that begins with raw sensory input and builds up to perception.

Top-down processing

Perception guided by experience, expectations, and prior knowledge.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Just noticeable difference/difference threshold

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Signal detection theory

Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background noise.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on one voice among many while ignoring others.

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.

Circadian rhythm

The body’s natural 24-hour cycle regulating sleep, wakefulness, and other biological functions.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.

Night terrors

Episodes of intense fear during sleep, often with screaming and thrashing, mostly in children.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or getting restful sleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Somnambulism

Walking or performing activities while asleep, also known as sleepwalking.

Delta waves

Slow brain waves associated with deep, dreamless sleep (stage 3).

Sleep spindles

Bursts of rapid brain activity during stage 2 sleep, linked to memory processing.

Alpha waves

Brain waves that occur when a person is relaxed but awake.

REM sleep

A sleep stage marked by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and brain activity similar to wakefulness.

Information processing theory

The idea that dreams help sort, store, and process the day’s experiences.

Physiological functioning theory

Suggests that dreaming keeps the brain active and healthy during sleep.

Activation synthesis theory

Proposes that dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM deprivation.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive steps.

Partial/intermittent reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, leading to slower extinction.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs to strengthen learning quickly.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior

Operant conditioning

Learning where behavior is influenced by consequences like rewards or punishments.

Little Albert experiment

A study by John Watson showing that fear can be conditioned in humans.