psychology p2 - research methods +criminal psychology

Define confidentiality.

Not disclosing the identity of participants.

Define privacy.

Keeping information private.

Define laboratory experiment.

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment.

Define field experiment.

A procedure conducted in a natural environment.

Define natural experiment.

A study that examines a naturally occurring variable in a real life situation.

Define structured interview.

An interview consisting of pre-set questions.

Define unstructured interview.

An interview consisting of free flowing conversation.

Define questionnaire.

A self-report method of gathering information.

What is an open ended question?

A question with no fixed response.

What is a closed question?

A question with a fixed response.

Define correlation.

Analysis of relationships between two variables.

Define observation.

Watching and recording behaviour.

Define natural observation.

Behaviour observed in a natural environment.

Define controlled observation.

Behaviour observed in a lab or controlled environment.

Define overt observation.

Participants know that they are being observed.

Define covert observation.

Participants are unaware that they are being observed.

Define participant observation.

The observer is involved in the group.

Define non-participant observation.

The observer watches without being involved in the group.

Define normal distribution.

All averages are very similar.

Define skewed distribution.

The median or mode differ from the mean.

Define frequency scores.

The number of times a score is found in a data set.

Define primary data.

Data collected directly for a specific research purpose.

Define secondary data.

Data used in a study that has already been collected.

Define meta-analysis.

Merging lots of data together to form conclusions.

Define qualitative data.

Descriptive data.

Define quantitative data.

Numerical data.

Define independent variable.

The variable that is changed or manipulated.

Define dependent variable.

The variable that is measured.

Define operationalised.

Making the variables very clear and detailed.

Define confounding variable.

A variable that can affect the results.

Define extraneous variable.

A variable that can affect the results if not controlled.

Define situational variable.

An extraneous variable present in the environment of the study.

Define order effects.

Whether participants improve or worsen in the second condition as they had already been exposed to the first condition.

Define demand characteristics.

Participants alter their behaviour due to knowing the aims of the study.

Define investigator effects.

When the researcher unintentionally gives clues to participants, altering their behaviour.

Define standardised procedure.

The procedure is kept the same for all participants.

Define counterbalancing.

Half of the participants experience condition A and then condition B, vice versa.

Define randomisation.

Participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B.

Define null hypothesis.

A prediction which will fail to show any difference.

Define alternative hypothesis.

A prediction with an outcome.

Define directional hypothesis.

Predicts what direction the results will go in.

Define non-directional hypothesis.

Predicts a relationship but does not specify the difference.

Define target population.

The group being investigated.

Define repeated measures.

The same people in all conditions.

Define matched pairs.

Different people are used in each condition but are matched for likeness.

Define reliability.

Consistency of an outcome or result.

Define validity.

The accuracy of results.

Define external validity.

If findings can be generalised to a target population.

Define independent groups.

Participants only tested in one condition.

Define right to withdraw.

Participants are clearly aware of their right to leave the study at any point.

Define informed consent.

Agreeing to take part in the research.

Define deception.

Lying to participants about the aim of the study or during the procedure.

Define debrief.

Participants are given full disclosure of the study.

Define single-blind technique.

Participants are not told the aims of the study or which condition they have been put in.

Give a strength of using random sampling.

Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected so the sample population should be more representative of the target population.

Give a weakness of using random sampling.

Even is selected participants may not agree to take part which might make the sample less representative.

Give a strength of stratified sampling.

All groups in the target population are represented in the sample population.

Give a weakness of stratified sampling.

Very time-consuming and people selected to take part might not want to, which makes the sample less representative.

Give one strength of volunteer sampling.

Ethical because people are choosing to take part. Easy to do.

Give a weakness of volunteer sampling.

May create a biased sample as it may only attract a certain type of person.

Give a strength of opportunity sampling.

Quick and easy to get hold of a sample population.

Give a weakness of opportunity sampling.

It may create a biased sample as only certain types of people might be around at the time.

What are the three types of experimental design?

Independent measures, repeated measures design and matched pairs design.

What is an independent measures design?

Participants only complete one condition in the experiment. The sample population is split into two groups.

Give a strength of an independent measures design.

No order effects.

Give a weakness of an independent measures design.

There may be individual differences within a group which will affect the results.

What is a repeated measures design?

All participants complete both conditions of the experiment.

Give a strength of using a repeated measures design.

No individual differences as all participants do both conditions.

Give a weakness of using a repeated measures design.

There may be order effects as participants may do better in the second condition.

What is a matched pairs design?

Participants are split into two groups but they are matched so that each group is equal in terms of ability, experience or gender. Participants only do one of the conditions.

Give a strength of using a matched pairs design.

Both groups can be compared as they are very similar. This reduces the effects of individual differences.

Give a weakness of using a matched pairs design.

Time-consuming and difficult to match the groups appropriately.

What does internal validity mean?

Whether the test being used actually measures what it is supposed to.

What does external validity mean?

Whether the findings can be generalised to the target population.

Give three strengths of using a laboratory experiment.

Very scientific, can show cause and effect, can control all extraneous variables

Give a weaknesses of using a laboratory experiment.

It cannot really show how people behave in everyday environments.

Give two strengths of using a field experiment.

Able to find out how we behave in real situations, can show cause and effect

Give two weaknesses of using a field experiment.

Cannot control all extraneous variables, ethical issues if the participants have not given their informed consent

Give two strengths of using a natural experiment.

The independent variable occurs naturally so there is no researcher manipulation, participants are studied in a real world setting

Give a weakness of using a natural experiment.

Extraneous variables are difficult to control.

Give two strengths of correlation as a form of evaluation.

Quick and cheap to do, can be done on any sets of data

Give a weakness of using correlation as a form of evaluation.

Cannot show cause and effect, only the strength of a relationship.

Give a strength of using a structured interview.

It is standardised so the answers can be easily compared.

Give two weaknesses of using a structured interview.

It is only as good as the quality of the questions, it does not allow the person to answer freely

Give two strengths of using a semi-structured interview.

It is standardised for most of the questions so responses can be easily compared, it is more flexible than a structured interview

Give two weaknesses of using a semi-structured interview.

They can be more time-consuming than structured interviews, interviewers need training on how to interview properly

Give a strength of using an unstructured interview.

You can gather lots of in-depth information from each person.

Give two weaknesses of using an unstructured interview.

Very time consuming to both carry out and analyse the responses, need lots of training to do it properly

Give three strengths of a case study in terms of gathering data.

Provides lots of in-depth information about an individual, it can be helpful in terms of treating an individual as information gathered is just about them, it can stimulate new research

Give three weaknesses of a case study in terms of gathering data.

Case studies are unique and cannot be repeated, findings can only be generalised to that one person or group, researcher may show researcher bias

Give four strengths of using questionnaires to gather data.

Easy to create, easy to complete, can be given to a large number of people to gather lots of data, closed questions produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse and compare

Give two weaknesses of using questionnaires to gather data.

Not everyone will complete questionnaires so response rate may be low, closed questions might force some people to pick and option that does not represent how they actually feel

Give a strength of observation as a form of gathering data.

If observers are well trained a lot of valuable data can be gathered about how people behave in real life situations.

Give two weaknesses of observation as a form of gathering data.

Observers might not interpret what they see correctly so it is open to researcher bias, covert observations are not ethical

What are the five main ethical issues that psychologists must consider when doing research, decided by the British Psychological Society?

Informed consent, deception, confidentiality, the right to withdraw and protection of participants.

What are the two learning theories involved in explaining criminal behaviour?

Operant conditioning and social learning theory.

How can operant conditioning explain criminal behaviour?

Criminal behaviour can be a result of being rewarded or can come from modelling the criminal behaviour we see in others.

Define positive reinforcement.

Receiving a pleasurable reward for a behaviour so we repeat it.

Define negative reinforcement.

The avoidance of something unpleasant so we repeat a behaviour.

Define positive punishment.

Receiving something unpleasant for a behaviour so we do not repeat it.