biology - semester final

name the 5 properties of water

cohesion and adhesion, high surface tension, high specific heat capacity, universal solvent, changes in density

give two examples of things that are amphipathic

phospholipids and detergent

what is a functional group?

small groups of atoms with specific chemical properties

what three functional groups can be added to anything?

hydroxyl, amine, and carboxylic acid

what is the backbone of an amino acid?

N-C-C

what are the different bond types?

covalent (polar and nonpolar), ionic, hydrogen bond, and van der waal forces

what are van der waal forces?

2 nonpolar molecules associate with each other

write the formula for an aldehyde group, a keto group, and a carboxyl group

COH, CO, COOH

what are the four macromolecules?

proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids

what are the monosaccharides?

fructose, glucose, and galactose

what are the disaccharides?

lactose, maltose, and sucrose

what makes up lactose?

glucose and galactose

what makes up maltose?

2 glucose

what makes up sucrose?

glucose and fructose

what are the polysaccharides?

starch, glycogen, and cellulose

what is the structural difference between the polysaccharides?

starch and glycogen are alpha-D-glucose and cellulose is beta-D-glucose

what polysaccharide(s) would you find in plant cells?

starch and cellulose

where is glycogen located?

in the liver

what is starch used for?

to store energy

what is glycogen used for?

to store energy for a short amount of time

what is cellulose used for?

plant structure

what is condensation?

the removal of water linking monomers together

what is hydrolysis?

the addition of water breaking a polymer into its monomers

what do carbohydrates do (3 things)?

transports energy within organisms, provides structure to those organisms, and recognizes or signals molecules that trigger biological responses

what is surface tension?

how far the bonds can stretch until they break

what bond holds alpha-D-glu and beta-D-glu together?

a glycosidic bond

what do oligosaccharides do?

they bond to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and serve as recognition signals

what are the differences between amylose (5) and amylopectin (4)?

amylose is 30% of stored starch, straight chain, reduces adhesive properties, harder to digest, and isn’t water soluble

amylopectin is 70% of starch, slightly branched, has adhesive properties, and is water soluble

what are lipids made up of?

hydrocarbons that are insoluble due to their nonpolar property

what are the properties of a lipid?

aids in structure, serves as thermal insulation for animals, cushions vital organs, and serves as long term storage for energy

what are triglycerides made up of?

three fatty acids and a glycerol

what is the difference between alpha-D-glu and beta-D-glu?

alpha-D-glu is down, down, up, down

beta-D-glu is up, down, up, down

what is the difference between fats and oils and which one is saturated and which one is unsaturated?

fats are solid at room temp and are saturated while oils are liquid at room temp and are unsaturated

what makes up a phospholipid?

2 fatty acids and a phosphate group bound to glycerol

why is the structure of cellulose so strong?

because it’s able to stack on itself, making it tougher and thicker

what are nucleotides responsible for?

DNA and RNA

what are nucleotides held by?

phosphodiester bonds

what is a phosphodiester bond?

when the phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds with the sugar molecule of another

the entire nucleotide is held together by what bond?

a covalent bond

what are nucleic acids?

polymers that store, transmit, and express hereditary information

what is the difference between a nucleotide and a nucleoside?

a nucleotide has a phosphate group but the nucleoside doesn’t

what are the pyrimidines and the purines and which ones are single bonded and which ones are double bonded?

the pyrimidines are cytosine, uracil, and thymine and they’re single bonded

the purines are adenine and guanine and they’re double bonded

what direction do nucleic acids grow in?

the 5’ to 3’ direction

what are the differences between RNA and DNA?

RNA is single stranded, uses uracil, and has the sugar ribose

DNA is double stranded, uses thymine. and has the sugar deoxyribose

what bond strongly holds together DNA and RNA?

hydrogen bonds

how does DNA turn into proteins (5 steps)?

DNA, replication and transcription, becomes RNA, translation, becomes a protein

what are the two functions of DNA?

replication and protein creation

what is the difference between a genome, a gene, and a gene expression?

a genome is a complete set of DNA, a gene is the DNA sequences that encode specific proteins and transcribe into RNA, and a gene expression is the transcription and translation of a specific gene

what are the 8 types of proteins?

enzymes, defensive proteins, hormonal and regulatory proteins, receptor proteins, storage proteins, structural proteins, genetic regulatory proteins, and transport proteins

what is an example of a defensive protein?

antibodies

what do hormonal and regulatory proteins do and give an example of one?

they control physiological processes

an example is insulin

what does a receptor protein do?

they receive and respond to molecular signals

what do storage proteins do?

they store amino acids

what do structural proteins do and give two examples?

they provide physical stability and movement

two examples are actin and myosin

what do transport proteins do and give an example?

they carry substances

an example is hemoglobin

what do genetic regulatory proteins do?

they regulate when, how, and to what extent a gene is expressed

what is the monomer for proteins?

amino acids

what is the left side and the right side of an amino acid called?

left side: n-terminus

right side: c-terminus

what do r-groups do?

they determine the chemical properties of the amino acid

what are oligopeptides?

short polymers that are made up of 20 or less amino acids

what bond holds two amino acids together?

a peptide bond

what is the primary structure?

the sequence of amino acids

what are the two secondary structures and what holds them together?

the alpha-helix and the beta-pleated sheets

they’re held together by hydrogen bonds

what is the tertiary structure?

the 3D shape of its polypeptide chain

what is the quaternary structure?

when two or more tertiary structures interact

what are two examples of proteins that have a quaternary structure?

hemoglobin and collagen

what bonds form the interactions between r-groups and what do each of them do (3)?

there are the disulfide bridges that hold the folded polypeptides, there are the hydrogen bonds that stabilize the folds, and there are van der waals forces that hold the hydrophobic side chains

what is denaturing?

when heat or chemicals disrupt weaker interactions in a protein

it destroys the secondary and tertiary structures

can proteins return to normal after being denatured?

yes because all the info needed is within the primary structure

what factors disrupt the protein interactions?

temperature, change in pH, and high concentrations of polar substances

does denaturing occur when you freeze things?

no

what is a catalyst?

a substance that speeds up reactions without being permanently altered

does the enzyme push the reaction?

no, it makes the path easier

what is the difference between endergonic and exergonic?

endergonic absorbs energy and exergonic releases energy

what does activation energy do?

it puts the reaction into a transition state

can activation energy come from heat?

yes

why doesn’t heat as activation energy work in living systems?

because all reactions would accelerate, including the destructive ones

what makes up your metabolism?

catabolism and anabolism

what is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?

catabolism uses energy to break down while anabolism uses energy to grow and build

what establishes the specificity in enzymes?

the exact 3D shape and chemical properties of the active site

what can the enzyme-substrate complex held together by (3 things)?

hydrogen bonding, electrical attraction, and temporary covalent bonding

what are the three steps of the enzyme-substrate complex?

enzyme and substrate separated

enzyme and substrate together

substrate becomes the product and the enzyme stays the same

what are the 3 enzyme mechanisms?

substrate orientation, adding chemical r-groups, and inducing strain

what does substrate orientation do to an enzyme?

it brings the substrates together so that bonds can form

what does inducing strain do to the substrate?

the enzyme causes bonds in the substrate to stretch, putting strain on the substrate

what is the induced fit?

when the enzyme changes shape to make the binding tight

what are the 3 cofactors that enzymes need to function?

metal ions, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups (nonamino acid groups)

what is the difference between a competitive and noncompetitive inhibitor?

a competitive inhibitor binds to the active site, preventing the substrate from binding to the enzyme while a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to another part of the enzyme, away from the active site

what do noncompetitive inhibitors do?

they turn reactions on and off

what do negative feedback systems do?

they determine when enough is enough

what do allosteric regulators do?

they alter the shape of the active site so the substrates can no longer bind and produce their chemical reactions

what are the three postulates that make up the cell theory?

cells are the fundamental units of life, all living organisms are composed of cells, and all cells come from pre-existing cells

are viruses living? and why?

no, because they can’t rely on their own

what are the cells that don’t conform to the cell theory (3 things)?

skeletal muscles, red blood cells, the epidermis

why don’t skeletal muscles conform to the cell theory?

they’re multinucleated

why don’t red blood cells conform to the cell theory?

they have no nucleus, organelles, or DNA

why doesn’t the epidermis conform to the cell theory?

skin cells of animals/plants are dead

what are the 7 properties of life?

order, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, response to the environment, regulation, and evolutionary adaptation

put organ, system, cell, and tissue in order from smallest to largest

cell, tissue, organ, and system

what does volume determine in a cell?

the metabolic activity/unit of time