Studied by 72 peoplename the 5 properties of water
cohesion and adhesion, high surface tension, high specific heat capacity, universal solvent, changes in density
give two examples of things that are amphipathic
phospholipids and detergent
what is a functional group?
small groups of atoms with specific chemical properties
what three functional groups can be added to anything?
hydroxyl, amine, and carboxylic acid
what is the backbone of an amino acid?
N-C-C
what are the different bond types?
covalent (polar and nonpolar), ionic, hydrogen bond, and van der waal forces
what are van der waal forces?
2 nonpolar molecules associate with each other
write the formula for an aldehyde group, a keto group, and a carboxyl group
COH, CO, COOH
what are the four macromolecules?
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids
what are the monosaccharides?
fructose, glucose, and galactose
what are the disaccharides?
lactose, maltose, and sucrose
what makes up lactose?
glucose and galactose
what makes up maltose?
2 glucose
what makes up sucrose?
glucose and fructose
what are the polysaccharides?
starch, glycogen, and cellulose
what is the structural difference between the polysaccharides?
starch and glycogen are alpha-D-glucose and cellulose is beta-D-glucose
what polysaccharide(s) would you find in plant cells?
starch and cellulose
where is glycogen located?
in the liver
what is starch used for?
to store energy
what is glycogen used for?
to store energy for a short amount of time
what is cellulose used for?
plant structure
what is condensation?
the removal of water linking monomers together
what is hydrolysis?
the addition of water breaking a polymer into its monomers
what do carbohydrates do (3 things)?
transports energy within organisms, provides structure to those organisms, and recognizes or signals molecules that trigger biological responses
what is surface tension?
how far the bonds can stretch until they break
what bond holds alpha-D-glu and beta-D-glu together?
a glycosidic bond
what do oligosaccharides do?
they bond to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and serve as recognition signals
what are the differences between amylose (5) and amylopectin (4)?
amylose is 30% of stored starch, straight chain, reduces adhesive properties, harder to digest, and isn’t water soluble
amylopectin is 70% of starch, slightly branched, has adhesive properties, and is water soluble
what are lipids made up of?
hydrocarbons that are insoluble due to their nonpolar property
what are the properties of a lipid?
aids in structure, serves as thermal insulation for animals, cushions vital organs, and serves as long term storage for energy
what are triglycerides made up of?
three fatty acids and a glycerol
what is the difference between alpha-D-glu and beta-D-glu?
alpha-D-glu is down, down, up, down
beta-D-glu is up, down, up, down
what is the difference between fats and oils and which one is saturated and which one is unsaturated?
fats are solid at room temp and are saturated while oils are liquid at room temp and are unsaturated
what makes up a phospholipid?
2 fatty acids and a phosphate group bound to glycerol
why is the structure of cellulose so strong?
because it’s able to stack on itself, making it tougher and thicker
what are nucleotides responsible for?
DNA and RNA
what are nucleotides held by?
phosphodiester bonds
what is a phosphodiester bond?
when the phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds with the sugar molecule of another
the entire nucleotide is held together by what bond?
a covalent bond
what are nucleic acids?
polymers that store, transmit, and express hereditary information
what is the difference between a nucleotide and a nucleoside?
a nucleotide has a phosphate group but the nucleoside doesn’t
what are the pyrimidines and the purines and which ones are single bonded and which ones are double bonded?
the pyrimidines are cytosine, uracil, and thymine and they’re single bonded
the purines are adenine and guanine and they’re double bonded
what direction do nucleic acids grow in?
the 5’ to 3’ direction
what are the differences between RNA and DNA?
RNA is single stranded, uses uracil, and has the sugar ribose
DNA is double stranded, uses thymine. and has the sugar deoxyribose
what bond strongly holds together DNA and RNA?
hydrogen bonds
how does DNA turn into proteins (5 steps)?
DNA, replication and transcription, becomes RNA, translation, becomes a protein
what are the two functions of DNA?
replication and protein creation
what is the difference between a genome, a gene, and a gene expression?
a genome is a complete set of DNA, a gene is the DNA sequences that encode specific proteins and transcribe into RNA, and a gene expression is the transcription and translation of a specific gene
what are the 8 types of proteins?
enzymes, defensive proteins, hormonal and regulatory proteins, receptor proteins, storage proteins, structural proteins, genetic regulatory proteins, and transport proteins
what is an example of a defensive protein?
antibodies
what do hormonal and regulatory proteins do and give an example of one?
they control physiological processes
an example is insulin
what does a receptor protein do?
they receive and respond to molecular signals
what do storage proteins do?
they store amino acids
what do structural proteins do and give two examples?
they provide physical stability and movement
two examples are actin and myosin
what do transport proteins do and give an example?
they carry substances
an example is hemoglobin
what do genetic regulatory proteins do?
they regulate when, how, and to what extent a gene is expressed
what is the monomer for proteins?
amino acids
what is the left side and the right side of an amino acid called?
left side: n-terminus
right side: c-terminus
what do r-groups do?
they determine the chemical properties of the amino acid
what are oligopeptides?
short polymers that are made up of 20 or less amino acids
what bond holds two amino acids together?
a peptide bond
what is the primary structure?
the sequence of amino acids
what are the two secondary structures and what holds them together?
the alpha-helix and the beta-pleated sheets
they’re held together by hydrogen bonds
what is the tertiary structure?
the 3D shape of its polypeptide chain
what is the quaternary structure?
when two or more tertiary structures interact
what are two examples of proteins that have a quaternary structure?
hemoglobin and collagen
what bonds form the interactions between r-groups and what do each of them do (3)?
there are the disulfide bridges that hold the folded polypeptides, there are the hydrogen bonds that stabilize the folds, and there are van der waals forces that hold the hydrophobic side chains
what is denaturing?
when heat or chemicals disrupt weaker interactions in a protein
it destroys the secondary and tertiary structures
can proteins return to normal after being denatured?
yes because all the info needed is within the primary structure
what factors disrupt the protein interactions?
temperature, change in pH, and high concentrations of polar substances
does denaturing occur when you freeze things?
no
what is a catalyst?
a substance that speeds up reactions without being permanently altered
does the enzyme push the reaction?
no, it makes the path easier
what is the difference between endergonic and exergonic?
endergonic absorbs energy and exergonic releases energy
what does activation energy do?
it puts the reaction into a transition state
can activation energy come from heat?
yes
why doesn’t heat as activation energy work in living systems?
because all reactions would accelerate, including the destructive ones
what makes up your metabolism?
catabolism and anabolism
what is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?
catabolism uses energy to break down while anabolism uses energy to grow and build
what establishes the specificity in enzymes?
the exact 3D shape and chemical properties of the active site
what can the enzyme-substrate complex held together by (3 things)?
hydrogen bonding, electrical attraction, and temporary covalent bonding
what are the three steps of the enzyme-substrate complex?
enzyme and substrate separated
enzyme and substrate together
substrate becomes the product and the enzyme stays the same
what are the 3 enzyme mechanisms?
substrate orientation, adding chemical r-groups, and inducing strain
what does substrate orientation do to an enzyme?
it brings the substrates together so that bonds can form
what does inducing strain do to the substrate?
the enzyme causes bonds in the substrate to stretch, putting strain on the substrate
what is the induced fit?
when the enzyme changes shape to make the binding tight
what are the 3 cofactors that enzymes need to function?
metal ions, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups (nonamino acid groups)
what is the difference between a competitive and noncompetitive inhibitor?
a competitive inhibitor binds to the active site, preventing the substrate from binding to the enzyme while a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to another part of the enzyme, away from the active site
what do noncompetitive inhibitors do?
they turn reactions on and off
what do negative feedback systems do?
they determine when enough is enough
what do allosteric regulators do?
they alter the shape of the active site so the substrates can no longer bind and produce their chemical reactions
what are the three postulates that make up the cell theory?
cells are the fundamental units of life, all living organisms are composed of cells, and all cells come from pre-existing cells
are viruses living? and why?
no, because they can’t rely on their own
what are the cells that don’t conform to the cell theory (3 things)?
skeletal muscles, red blood cells, the epidermis
why don’t skeletal muscles conform to the cell theory?
they’re multinucleated
why don’t red blood cells conform to the cell theory?
they have no nucleus, organelles, or DNA
why doesn’t the epidermis conform to the cell theory?
skin cells of animals/plants are dead
what are the 7 properties of life?
order, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, response to the environment, regulation, and evolutionary adaptation
put organ, system, cell, and tissue in order from smallest to largest
cell, tissue, organ, and system
what does volume determine in a cell?
the metabolic activity/unit of time
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