U.S. History: Key Amendments, Policies, and Events (1800s)

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution guaranteeing individual liberties (speech, religion, due process).

Congressional Representation

The balance of power between large and small states; led to the Great Compromise (House by population, Senate equal).

Sovereignty

The authority of a state to govern itself; debated between federal and state governments (seen in Nullification Crisis).

Nullification

Theory that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional (espoused by John C. Calhoun).

Force Bill

Authorized Jackson to use the military to enforce federal tariffs during the Nullification Crisis (1833).

Corrupt Bargain (1824)

Alleged deal where Henry Clay helped John Quincy Adams win the presidency in exchange for being named Secretary of State.

Political Parties

Originated from Hamilton's Federalists (strong central gov't) and Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans (states' rights).

Midnight Judges

Federalist judges appointed by John Adams in his last days in office to maintain influence in the judiciary.

John Marshall

Chief Justice who strengthened federal power and judicial review (e.g., Marbury v. Madison).

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Jefferson bought territory from France, doubling U.S. size and challenging his strict interpretation beliefs.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Commissioned by Jefferson to explore Louisiana Territory and map route to the Pacific.

Florida

Acquired via Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) after Seminole conflicts; Spain ceded it to the U.S.

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

Agreement with Spain granting Americans navigation of the Mississippi and access to New Orleans.

BUS (Bank of the United States)

Created by Hamilton to stabilize the economy; later opposed by Jackson for favoring elites.

American System

Henry Clay's plan: protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements to promote national unity.

Eli Whitney

Invented the cotton gin and interchangeable parts, revolutionizing Southern agriculture and Northern industry.

Robert Fulton

Invented the steamboat, aiding transport and trade along rivers.

Market Revolution

Economic transformation involving industrialization, transportation (canals, railroads), and commercial farming.

Education in U.S.

Movement toward public schooling led by reformers like Horace Mann in the early 19th century.

Noah Webster

Created textbooks and dictionaries that standardized American English and promoted national identity.

Medicine

Early 1800s medicine remained primitive; limited understanding of hygiene and disease.

Washington Irving

Early American author known for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle, fostering national literature.

Era of Good Feelings

Period of political unity during Monroe's presidency; masked growing sectional tensions.

Sectionalism

Loyalty to regional interests (North industry, South slavery, West expansion) threatening national unity.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

Missouri admitted as slave state, Maine as free; set 36°30′ line for future slavery limits.

Tallmadge Amendment

Proposed gradual emancipation in Missouri; rejected but previewed sectional conflict over slavery.

Slavery Issues

Grew with cotton expansion; divided the nation politically, morally, and economically.

War of 1812

Conflict with Britain over trade restrictions and impressment; boosted nationalism and manufacturing.

Hartford Convention

Federalist meeting opposing the War of 1812; seen as unpatriotic, leading to the party's decline.

Seminole Wars

Series of conflicts in Florida as U.S. sought to remove Seminoles and enslaved Africans from refuge.

Cherokee / Trail of Tears

Forced removal of Cherokee (1838) under Jackson's Indian Removal Act; thousands died on the march west.

George Washington

Set precedents as first president; warned against political parties and foreign alliances.

Thomas Jefferson

Third president; emphasized agrarianism, limited government, and expansion via Louisiana Purchase.

Andrew Jackson

Seventh president; championed the 'common man,' opposed BUS, enforced Indian removal, and expanded executive power.

Henry Clay

'Great Compromiser,' advocate of the American System, and key figure in Missouri Compromise and 1824 election.