UNIT 1

Heimler 1.1

State Building in Song China

• Power in Song China

  • Maintaining and Justifying power

• Confucianism→ Human society is hierarchical by nature aka composed of unequal relationships

  • Continuity from previous dynasty (Tang dynasty but began in the Han dynasty)

  • Fathers greater than sons, Husbands better than wives, and rulers greater than subjects

  • Those with higher status treated those with a lesser status disrespectfully and the with lower status obeyed

  • Filial Piety→ the practice of honoring one’s ancestors and parents which translated to the emperor and the peasants

• Neo-Confucianism→ New Confucianism

  • Included the influence of Buddhist and Daoust philosophical ideas

  • The revival of Confucianism demonstrates historical continuity between ancient China and the Song Period and illustrates innovation

  • Used to maintain and justify power

• Women in Song China

  • relegated to a subordinate position in the hierarchy

  • Women’s rights were restricted

  • Her property became her husband’s and forbidden to remarry

  • Foot-Binding→ Wrapping feet in an unusual manner in order to make them smaller and negatively impacting their ability to move

    • More common amongst the higher members of Society bc if the wife can’t walk then they can afford to have someone else do the housework

• Bureaucracy→ Governmental entity that Carrie’s out the well of the emperor

  • Helped enforce laws within the dynasty as it was too big to be ruled by the emperor alone

  • Civil Service Examination→ Heavily based upon Confucian classics

    • Men had to ace the exam to obtain a position in the Bureaucracy

    • Allowed the Bureaucracy be staffed with the most qualified men (Jobs rewarded by merit and not nepotism)

    • Increased the competency and efficiency of tasks

  • Meritocracy→ Obtaining a job based on one’s ability and knowledge rather than Nepotism

China’s Global Influence

• Korea→ Independent politically due to a tribute system with China

  • Tributary system→ The honoring of one state to another through payment in either money, trade, services, etc

  • Used a similar civil service examination to staff their Bureaucracy

  • Adopted Confucian principles which organized their family structure

  • Further Marginalized the role of women

• Japan→ Geographical location allowed them to be less influenced by China

  • Adopted Chinese traits voluntary

  • Adopted Imperial Bureaucracy

  • Chinese Buddhism became popular among elites

• Vietnam→ Indépendant politically participated in the tributary system

  • Elite members adopted

    • Confucianism

    • Buddhism

    • Chinese literary techniques

    • Civil Service examination

  • Women were not as greatly marginalized

    • Some deities we’re female + female Buddha

• ALL THREE REJECTED FOOT BINDING UPON WOMEN

Buddhism in China

• Four Noble truths

  • Life is suffering

  • We suffer because we crave

  • We cease suffering became we cease craving

  • The eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving

• Eightfold Path → Outlines the principles and practices that a Buddhist must follow

  • Moral lifestyle and meditation

• Carried similar traits from Hinduism

• Theravada Buddhism→ emphasis on escaping a cycle of birth and death, only available to a selected few

• Mahayana Buddhism→ emphasized that Buddhist teachings were available to all, compassion, and Made Buddha into an object of devotion

• Tibetan Buddhism → emphasized more mystical practices

  • Lying prostrate

  • Elaborate imaginings of deities

Although Song Dynasty made their policies to emphasize more traditional Chinese ideas, like Confucianism, Buddhism continued to play a significant role in society

Economy in Song China

• Commercialization of the economy→ more goods than they needed + sold excess

• Paper Money leads to practices such as credit and promissory notes

• Iron and Steel production→ Enough was being produced for trade and taxation and many tools were needed for agriculture by the 11th century

• Agricultural Production

  • Champa Rice→ Came from Vietnam

    • Drought resistant

    • Harvestable twice a year (Doubling agricultural output)

    • Population boom

• Transportation innovations

  • Grand Canal→ They expanded it which made trade cheaper

  • Magnetic Compass

    • Improved navigation on water

    • Further facilitated sea-based trade in various regions

  • New shipping techniques

    • Improved design of Junk ships which led to more trade and economic prosperity

1.2 AMSCO Notes

Innovations and Shifts in Trade Routes

• Egyptian Mamluks- Arabs purchased enslaved people, who were ethnic Turks from central Asia, to serve as soldiers and later as Beauracrats

  • Had more opportunities for advancements

  • Later on, seized control and established the Mamluk Sultanate

    • facilitated trade in cotton and sugar from the Middle East to Europe

    • When Europeans developed new sea routes, they declined in power

• Seljuk Turks→ Threatened the Abbasids and were Muslims

  • Sultan→ Leader of the Seljuks + the title reduced the role of the highest-ranking Abbasid

• Crusaders→European Christians organized soldiers whose purpose was to reopen access to travel routes within Jerusalem that the Seljuks closed down

• Mongols→ Fourth group to attack the Abbasids and end the Seljuk rule

• Economic Competition

  • Trade patterns shifted to routes further north

    • Baghdad loses its place as the center of trade and therefore suffers economically

Cultural and Social Life

• Abbasid Caliphate→Originally led by Persians and Arabs but Turkey took over Islamic states later

• Three Larges Islamic states became involved in Turkic culture such as the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire

• Trade allowed for the spread of new ideas, religion, and culture.

• Cultural Continuities

  • Islamic state’s quest for knowledge

    • Translating Greek text and preserving that knowledge

    • Studied mathematics from India and transferred knowledge to Europe

    • Adopted paper-making techniques from China and taught Europeans

• Cultural Innovation

  • Nasir al-din al- Tusi most celebrated Islamic scholar

    • contributed to many scientific fields and medicine

    • Most accurate astronomy charts under his observatory

• Sufism→ began as a mystical response to the perceived love of luxury of the Umyadd Caliphate

  • Sufi missionaries played a crucial role in the spread of Islam by mixing culture and religion

• Commerce, Class, and Diversity

  • Commerce assisted in powering the golden age of the arts, and natural and moral philosophy

  • Merchants were viewed as prestigious

Free women in Islam

• Muhammad´s policies →raise the status of women tremendously

• Islamic women acquired a higher status than Christian and Jewish women

1.3 Heimler Notes

Belief systems in South Asia + Southeast

• Hinduism

  • Poleyistic belief system

    • Adherents believe in many gods, not just one

    • The ultimate goal is to reunite their individual soals to the all-pervasive world soul known as Brahman

      • Involves cycling through death and rebirth aka reincarnation

  • Provided the conditions for a unified culture in India

  • The caste system→The top was considered better and the bottom was the refuse of society

    • Only able to move up through reincarnation

• Bhuddism→ Founded in India

  • Similarities with Hinduism→ Cycle of birth and death and reincarnation + dissolves into the oneness of the universe

  • Differences

    • Rejected the caste system and advocated for equality for all

      • Ethnic religion→ Bound to certain people in a certain place

      • Universalizing religion

• Islam

  • Turkic Muslim invaders came into South Asia and set up a Muslim empire known as the Delhi Sultanate

  • Because in large parts of India, the Mu slims were in charge, it became the religion of the elite, and then throughout southeast Asia

Belief system change

Hinduism

• Bakhti Movement→ Encouraged believers to worship god in the Hindu pantheon of gods

  • rejected the hierarchy of Hinduism

  • Encouraged spiritual experience to all people regardless of social status

Islam

• Sufism→ a more mystical, spiritual experience-based version of Islam

Bhaktis and Sufis→ Mystical experience Rejected elaborate doctrine and religious requirements of the elite

Buddhism

• Despite the original teachings of the Buddha emphasizing access to enlightenment for all people, by this time in South Asia, it had become more and more exclusive

• Was on the decline

State Building in South Asia

Delhi Sultanate→ Muslim rulers within the sultanate had a lot of trouble imposing Islam on India

• Hinduism was popular and Islam ended up being a minority religion

Rajput Kingdoms

Viayagandra empire

• Muslim rulers, I the Delhi sultanate wanted to expand to the south of India in a group of emissaries

  • The emissaries converted back and established a rivalry Hindu empire

Sea-Based States in Southeast Asia

• Srivijaya was Buddhist

  • The main source of Power was the Strait of Malacca

    • The best way for merchants to get anywhere

    • Slapped taxes on ships passing through the strait

• Majaphahit Kingdom

  • Strong Buddhist influences

  • Tributary System

Land-Based State in Southeast

• Sinhalah→

  • Land or sea whether they get their power from the sea or land

• Khmer Empire→ Hindu Empire

  • Angkor Wat→ represents the entire Hindu universe but then converted to Buddhism and added the Buddhist statue

1.4 Heimler notes

Essential Ideas- Continuity and innovation compared to those states that came before

Mesoamerica

• Maya Innovations

  • Built huge urban centers, the most sophisticated writing system in Mesoamerica, and expanded on math

  • State Building

    • State structure was a decentralized collection of city-states that were frequently at war with one another

    • Fought to create a vast network of tributary states among neighboring regions such as textiles, weapons, and building materials

    • Emphasized human sacrifice→ believed that the sun deity was losing energy to his darkness and reacquired life-sacrificing energy of human blood

• Aztec Empire

  • Mexica people were a semi-nomadic bunch who migrated south + built up militaries and gained power

    • Later on, entered an alliance with two other empires and established their empire

    • Ruled their state in a way to demonstrate continuity like the Maya

    • Decentralized Power→ the various people they conquered were set up as tributary states

      • This is how they administrated their rapidly growing empire aka tributary system

      • Motivation for expansion was religious due to needing more human sacrifice

    • Securing Legitemacy→ Mexica claimed heritage from older, more renowned Mesoamerican people

  • City Building Projects

    • Tenochtitlan→ peak religious power and authority

      • Heavy population

      • Vast market places meaning they had a commercialized economy

    • Acquired elaborate palaces and pyramids

• Inca Empire

  • Borrowed a lot from older civilizations including the wari

• Similarities between Incas +Aztecs

  • Outsiders who rose to power via military prowess

  • Expanded their empire rapidly

• Differences

  • Aztecs→ Decentralized power, relied on tributary relationships

  • Inca→ Centralized power, massive bureaucracy

    • Mit’a System→ Required labor of all people for a period f time each year to work on state projects like mining or military service

    • Made use of prodigious use of systems employed by earlier civilizations such as vast networks of roads and bridges

In order to legitimitize power, people would claim they had relationships with previous powerful empires and ruler

• North American Civilization

  • Mississipian Culture→ represented the first large-scale civilization in America

    • Due to fertile soil, their society developed around farming

    • Political stucture was dominated by chiefs known as the Great Sun

      • Ruled each town and extended political power over smaller satellite settlements

      • Society was hierarchical

    • Known for mound building process

1.5 Heimler Notes

State-Building in sub-Saharan Africa

• Swahili Civilization→ Collection of independent city states rising to prominence due to their strategic location on the coast

  • Merchants were interested in Gold, Ivory, Timber, enslaved people

  • Indian Ocean trade was main trading network for this place

  • Focused on trade + goods imported from farmers and pastoralists

  • Islam became a dominant belief system

    • Conversion among the Swahili elite took place voluntarily which was great for the Muslims because it connected them to the wider economic world of Dar-al-Islam

    • Islam influence the Swahili language→ Hybrid between Bantu Family of languages (Indigenous) and Arabic (Outside)

• Swahili vs Song China

  • Similarities→ Expanded wealth by participating in trade beyond their borders+ Featured hierarchical structures that organized society

  • Differences

    • Song China→ Highly centralized power structures with emperor at top

    • Swahili→ No larger, unified political structure

• Great Zimbabwe

  • Participated in the Indian Ocean Trade which they facilitated trade through ports

    • Their economy was based on bread and butter

  • Constructed massive structures, second largest structure in Africa after the Egyptians pyramids

State Building in West and East Africa

• Hausa Kingdoms→ Collection of city states that were politically independent and gained power and wealth through trade across the trans-Saharan trade network

  • Similar to Swahili states

    • States were urbanized and commercialized, and acted as middlemen for goods grown in the interior which they integrated into trade patterns with other states across West and North African

    • Each state ruled by a king who imposed social hierarchies on their societies

    • Ruler converted to Islam further facilitating trade with Muslim Merchants

African states during this period adopted Islam to organize their societies and facilitated trade with larger network present in Dar-al-Islam

• Ethiopia→ Christian state and only exception to the Islamic rule

  • Constructed massive stone churches, communicating to their subjects who was in charge

  • Grew wealthy through trade

    • Traded both in the Mediterranean Sea and in the larger Indian Ocean network

    • Salt was one of their most valuable commodity

  • Centralized Power

    • King on top

    • Stratified class hierarchies below the king

1.6 Heimler Notes

Christianity dominates Europe

• Official state religion due to constantine

• Byzantine Empire→ Keeps faith alive after the fall of the romans

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

• Provided a belief structure that helped Byzantine rulers justify their ruler consolidate power

• In the West, after the fall of the roman empire, they became decentralized

• Despite fragmentation Christianity maintained prescience in the form of Roman Catholic Christianity

• Kevan Rus became embodiment after the collapse of the Byzantine

Roman Catholic Christianity

• Despite fragmentation Christianity maintained prescience in the form of Roman Catholic Christianity

• Western Europe was isolated but only had this religion in common

• The church motivated them to go fight the Muslims for their lands

• Crusades→ Christian soldiers who were defeated by the Muslims big time

Christianity was the major religion but Islam and Judaism were minority religions within Europe

Islam

• Muslims ruled the Iberian Peninsula

Judaism

• Scattered throughout Europe and Facilitated trade

• Anti-Semitic→ Rose due to European suspicion

Political Decentralization in the West

• No large Empires in Europe

• Social, political and economic order was organized around feudalism

• Feudalism→ A system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights

  • Lords and Kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings

  • Land was exchanged in order to keep everyone loyal

• Manorialism

  • Peasants were bound to land and worked in exchange for protection from the lord and military forces

  • Called Serfs

    • Bound to the land and similar to slaves

Monarchs began to gain power and centralize their states by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies

• Prior to this the nobility held the most power

• But Monarchs grow in power as things become more centralized

• Monarchs will complete for influence and territory causing different wars during conquest

UNIT 2

2.1 Heimler Notes

Silk Roads

• A vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas across Eurasia in and before 1200-1450

• Cultural diffusion→ Ideas and cultural traits spread through trade

• Luxury items

  • Chinese silk

The silkroads expand→ Causes

• Innovations in commercial practices

  • Development of Money Economics

    • Paper money→ Through the introduction of paper money to facilitate trade, a merchant could deposit bills in one location and withdraw the same amount in another location

      • Increased the ease of travel and the security of transactions

  • Increasing use of credit

    • Flying money

  • Rise of Banks

    • Introduction of banking houses in Europe

    • Bill of exchange

• Transportation

  • Caravanserai→ a series of inns and guest houses spaced about a day’s journey on route’s in which merchants traveled

    • Provided safety from plunderers

    • Became centers of cultural exchange and diffusion

  • Saddles→ made riding easier over long distances

    • Allowed for more good to be exported and for merchants to travel longer

  These innovations made it easier for merchants to pay for goods and get paid for goods as well as travel longer distances safer and more comfortably

  Effects of the rise of trade

  • New trading cities

    • Kashgar→ Located at the convergence of major routes in the silk road

      • Became a destination in itself for hosting profitable markets and becoming a thriving center for Islamic scholarship through the increasing demand for interregional trade

    • Samarkand

      • Strategically located on silk roads

      • Cultural exchange occurred

      • similar to silk road

  • Increased demand for luxury goods

    • Chinese silk and porcelain

    • Demand grew for luxury items, Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans increased their production of these goods

    • Yangtze river valley→ spent more time producing silk textiles for trade, food production decreased in efficiency

      • Protoindustrialization→ A process which China began producing more goods than their own population could consume, which were then sold in distant markets

        • Reinvested money made through this process into iron and steel production

  • Cultural diffusion

    • Islamic merchants spread Islam and Buddhist merchants spread Buddhism

  • Spread of disease

    • Bubonic Plague

2.2 Heimler Notes

Rise of the Mongol Empire

• Temujin aka Genghis Khan

  • Mongol’s→ Pastoral Nomads aa traveling people

  • Became a powerful leader, uniting all Mongols under his rule

  • Conquered northern China, Central Asian, Southern Russia

• Military Organization

  • Commanding smaller armies made it easier to communicate and keep the soldiers in order

  • Usage of better weaponry and having a strong skill when it came to bows

• Sack of Baghdad1258

  • Mongols bring the Abbasid caliphate to an end

• Reputation for Brutality

  • Would almost destroy everyone within a settlement and leave a few alive to spread the horrors of their ways

  • Mongols did not have to fight sometimes due to their reputation, only had to show up and the rest would surrender

Pax Mongolia

• Peace post Mongol expansion

• adapted to some regional cultures

Genghis Khan descendants

• Kublai khan→ Began the Yuan Dynasty within China

  • United waring factions

  • Granted him the Mandate of Heaven

    • Because of him uniting China, that made him a rightful ruler

  • Styled himself as a Confucian ruler

Mongolian Economic situation

• The silk roads became very prosperous and organized due to Mongol Rule

• Improved Infrastructure

  • Built Bridges and repaired roads

• Increased Communication

  • Exchanging ambassadors and artisans

  • Yam System→ a series of communication relay stations spread across the Empire

Technological and Cultural Transfers

• Made sure to not target those of knowledge and skill in their conquests

• Mongol policy to send skilled people to different parts of the empire, movement encouraged the transfer of technology and ideas and culture

Mongol Transfer

• Medical Knowledge

  • Greek/ Islamic scholars to western Europe

• Adaptation of Uyghur Script

  • Lingua Franca

  • Despite the Mongol empire facilitated many cultural transfers across many parts of Eurasia

2.3 Heimler Notes

Indian Ocean Trade Network

• A network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasian through trade

• Causes of Expansion

  • Collapse of Mongol Empire→ Safety in the Silk road declined, leading to an emphasis on maritime trade in the Indian Ocean

  • Commercial Practices

    • Money economics and the ability to buy goods on credit made trade easier and therefore, increased the use of these routes

  • Innovations in transportation technology

    • Magnetic Compass→ Made it easier for sailors to know where the are going

    • Astrolabe→ A tool for measuring stars

    • Lateen Sail→ Allowed ships to take win in any direction

    • Knowledge of the Monsoon Winds

    • Improvements in shipbuilding

      • Junk→ Massive ship that can carry a lot of cargo + intimidated other

      • Dhows→ Used by Arab sailors in Indian Ocean

    • Luxury Goods

      • Silk roads vs Indian Ocean

      • Silk Road→ Focused more on luxurious items and not common ones

        • Silk, porcelain

      • Indian Ocean→ Focused on both luxurious and common goods

        • Cotton Textiles, Grains, Luxury Goods

  • Spread of Islam

    • Facilitated increased trade along sea-based routes

  • Growth of trade-cities and states

    • Swahili city-state

      • Grew powerful and wealthy due to benefit from trade in the Indian Ocean

      • Imported Gold, Ivory, and slaves

      • Converts of Islam

        • Built mosques to display their wealth

    • Malacca

      • Sultanate of Malacca

      • Controlled the strait of Malacca + Grew rich due to the Indian Ocean trade + expanded their power throughout the region

      • Taxed ships passing through their waters

    • Gujarat

      • Midpoint of everything

      • Traded cotton textiles, indigo in exchange for gold and silver within the middle east

      • Taxed ships like Malacca

  • Diasporic Communities

    • A group of people from one place who established a home in another place while retaining their cultural customs

    • Chinese communities in Southeast Asia

    • Arab and Persian communities in East Africa

  Cultural and Technological transfers

  • occur over trade routes are just as significantly as goods exchanged over trade routes

  • Exchange of religion, Languages, and Technology

  • Zheng He→ Ming Dynasty commissioned him to explore the Indian Ocean and enroll others in china’s tributary system

    • Ships were equipped with gunpowder cannons and weapons

2.4 Heimler Notes

Trans-Saharan Trade Network

• A series of trade routes connecting North Africa and Mediterranean world with interior West Africa and the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa

Causes of Expansion

• Transportation Technologies

  • Introduction of Arabian Camels

• Saddles

• Caravanserai

Trans-Saharan Goods

• Gold

• Kola Nuts

• Horses

• Salt→ Had great demand across the content

Each Region specialized in creating and growing various goods and that difference created demand to trade with each other and created occasion for expansion of those networks

The Growth of Empires

• Mali→ Due to Islamic Convergence, they were connected to the trade routes

  • This connection meant that Mali grew wealthy due to its participation in the Trans-Saharan Trade network

  • Exported Gold and made money by taxing trade routes within their territory

Sultanate of Malacca and Mali similarities

• Control of strategic points along high traffic trade routes

• Grew in power and Wealth

Mansa Musa from Mali

• Muslim man who was extremely Wealthy

• Went on Pilgrimage to Mecca

  • Had an entourage and stopped in Egypt to resupply which made the value of gold plummet

• Wealthy through trans-sharan trade

• Further monopolized trade with North and interior of continent which grew his wealth and facilitated network

2.5 Heimler Notes

Trade Networks and diffusion

• Cultural diffusion

• Cultural Transfers

  • Done through merchants interacting with one another

    • Buddhism→From India to east asia

      • To make Buddhist teachings intelligible to chinese population, merchants and monks explained them in terms of chinese Daoism aka an indigenous belief system indigenous to china

    • Syncretism→ The blending of ideas within cultures and religions

      • buddhism and daoism turned into Chan Buddhism

      • Zen Bhuddism in Japan

    • Spread of Islam through merchants in Dhar al islam

      • Swahii civilization was powerful because they adopted islam and got connected to larger islamic networks

        • Swahili→ Bantu and arabic

  • Literary and artistic transfers

    • House of Wisdom→ Full of translated texts and wisdom

    • Renaissance→ Used the information from House of Wisdom

  • Scientific and Technological Innovations

    • Scientific and technological studies were spreading through trade

      • Papermaking

      • Moveable type→ modified and adapted by Europeans leading to an increase in literacy

      • Gunpowder

Effects of trade on cities

• Networks of exchange led to the increasing power and wealth of trade cities

  • Hanghzhou→ Situated at the Grand Canal which led to increased trade causing further urbanization of landscape and population

  • Samarkand and Kashgar→ Located silk roads the cities that grew in power and influence through trade

    • For all these cities, the expansion of trading networks only increased their influence and that resulted in an increase in productivity in those places

    • Militaries used these routes

  • Cities in Decline

    • Baghdad→Capital of Islamic cultural and artistic achievement

      • Mongols sacked it and brought an end to the abbasid empire

    • Constantinople

      • Political and religious capital of Byzantine Empire

      • Ottomans sacked it

Increased Interregional Travel

• Ibn Battuta→ Muslim Scholar from Morocco

  • Traveled all over Dar- Al- Islam

  • Wrote notes about places, people, ruler, and cultures

  • Travel made possible due to trade routes

  • Important travels due to record keeping and story telling which led to people developing an understanding of far- Flung cultures across the world

• Marco Polo→ Traveled from Italy to China

  • Traveled throughout Indian Ocean

  • Write about court of Kublai Khan and China’s grandeur and wealth

  • Developed better understanding of others in Europe

• Margery Kemp→ Christian Mystic

  • Made pilgrims to Christianity’s holy sites

    • Jerusalem, Rome, Spain, etc

  • Illiterate and had to dictate her observations from memory for others to write down

  • Provided insights on cultural variations about the practice of Christianity throughout Europe and Middle East

2.6 Heimler Notes

Diffusion of Crops

• Due to trading networks, new crops were introduced to various places

• Bananas→ Domesticated in Southeast Asia and targeted to Africa through the Indian Ocean Trade

  • The rain forest created a great environment for the growth of Bananas

  • Led diet expansion and population growth

  • Bantus were able to migrate thank to banana because it replaced their Yam

• Champa Rice

  • Inteoduced to China through the Champa kingdom in Vietnam

  • Two Harvesting seasons

  • Led to population boom

• Citrus Fruits

  • Introduced through the Mediterranean by Muslims to Europe

  • Variations in Diet and better health

Causes of Diseases

• Bubonic Plague aka Black Death

  • occurred to Mongol Expansion

  • Expanded through the Silk Road

  • Wiped out half the population of Europe and Middle East

UNIT 3

3.1 Heimler notes

Safavid-Mughal conflict, Songhai-Morroco conflict

how and why various land-based empires developed and expanded

Gunpowder Empire

• All empires were land-based

• Each empire was expanding geographically during this period

• Main cause of that expansion was the adoption of gunpowder weapons

• Empires that adopted gunpowder weapons that came out on top

• Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire, Mughal empire, and Qing Dynasty/Ming Dynasty in China

Ottoman Empire

• Most significant Islamic empire

• Controlled the Dardanelles which was a highly strategic choke point and they used it to launch their campaigns of expansion

• Adoption and development of gunpowder weapons

• The sack of Constantinople was the most important achievement which took down the Byzantine empire

  • Mehmed II sent an army to take over the city using cannons, blasting the walls to pieces and allowing them to take over

  • Constantinople is now Istanbul

Safavid Empire

• Grew under a Shaw named Ismail

• Shia Muslims

• Shia-Sunni split → conflicting beliefs about who was the legitimate successor of Muhammad

• Expanded under Shah Abbas and adopted gunpowder weapons (expanded into ottoman territory)

Mughal Empire

• Replaced the Delhi sultanate under leadership of Babur

• Babur →utilized the expansion of gunpowder and guns to expand

• Akbar→Babur’s grandson

  • Allowed the empire to expand further

  • Masterful administrator of the empire and under his leadership, the Mughal empire became the most prosperous in the 16th century

Qing/ Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty

• Ming Dynasty was ethnically Han

• Established peace and order throughout east Asia

• Expanded through gunpowder

• Ming Dynasty falls apart due to internal conflict leading to rise of Qing Dynasty

Qing Dynasty

• Established by the Manchus

• Invaded the Ming’s when they were experiencing internal conflict

• Manchu are not ethnically Han like the majority of china’s population causing tentions

Rivalries between states

• Due to unlimited expansion, gunpowder empires experienced political conflict

• Conflict causes were mainly religion and politics

  • Safavid Mughal Conflict→ Erupted due to Shia-Sunni split

  • Songhai-Morreacon Conflict→ Songhai expanded economically due to their control over the trans-Saharan trade but began to lose power due to internal conflict and Morocco attempts to take over= Morracans won due to gunpowder weapons possession

3.2 Heimler Notes

Ottoman Devshirme, Samurai, Mexica human sacrifice, Divine right, Songhai promotion of Islam, Qing portraits, Incan sun temple of Cuzco, Mughal Mosques, Palace of Versailles, Mughal Zamindar tax colllection, Mexica tribute list, and tax collection in hard currency,

Legitimizing and Consolidating power

• Legitimizing power → Refers to the methods the ruler uses to communicate with all their subjects who is in charge

• Consolidate Power→ Measures a ruler uses to take power from the other groups and claims it for him or herself

Bureaucracies and militaries

• Empires and power

  • Large imperial bureaucracies

    • Bureaucracy→ A body of government officials responsible for administering the empire and ensures the laws are being kept

    • Larger empire=larger bureaucracies

  • Devshirme system→A system by which the ottomans staged their imperial bureaucracy with highly trained individuals, most of whom were enslaved

• Military Expansion

  • Elite military professionals

  • Janissaries→ Highly trained Ottoman Empire soldiers, also made up of enslaved Christians

Religions, Art, and Architecture

• Religion and Power

  • Rule by divine right of kings (Europe)

    • Divine Right→ King and queen ruled with the permission of Jesus AS himself

      • Apposing king is apposing god himself

  • Human Sacrifice (Aztecs)

    • Mostly used prisoners of war for sacrifices

• Qing Dynasty

  • Kangxi imperial portraits → served to convince the Chinese that he was the legitimate ruler

    • Depicted according to traditional Confusion values

• Palace Of Versailles→ Created by Louis XIV

  • whoever lives there is in charge

  • Used it to consolidate power by making French nobility live there part-time to keep an eye on them

• Inca Sun Temple

  • Walls covered in gold and contained hundreds of statues

Financial Imperial Expansion

• Zamindar System → Part of the Mughal Empire

  • Mughal Rulers were Muslim while the South Asian population was Hindu which arose suspicion toward the rulers

  • Zamindars collected taxes throughout the empire on behalf of the emperor

• Tax Farming→ Ottoman Empire

  • A system for collecting taxes

  • Authorized to collect taxes from a particular group of people and they enriched themselves by collecting more taxes than were legally required, thus padding their pockets

  • Providing a reliable source of income at beginning which came from the bidding or the right to tax and finance these tax farmers weren’t members of the beaucracy and paid themselves by fleecing the populace

3.3 Heimler Notes

continuity and change within the various belief systems

Christianity in Europe

• Expanding militaries played a big role, as did expanding bureaucracies

• Belief systems supported and challanged imperial power

• Christianity

  • Became a shared cultural glue for Europeans

  • Fighting over doctorines occured and it was split into two branches

    • Eastern Orthedox Chruch in the East

      • Wielded enormous power in Europe and monarchs will challange that power

    • Roman Catholic church in the West

    • Churches built magnificent structures

    • Sale of indulgences→ Purchasing the slips of paper in exchange for forgiveness of sin

    • Simony→ Practice of putting high church positions up for sale

  • Martin Luther

    • Wrote the 95 theses→ Announced the corrupt practices and doctrines

    • Excommunicated him

    • Many others had reforms before him but he was the one who split the church

    • Protestant Reformation→ The name of the movement

    • Printing press→ enabled Luther’s writing to Europe

  • Catholic reformation/counter reformation

    • Conducted meetings such as the Council of Trent

      • Reaffirmed ancient doctrines of salvation and works

      • Biblical authority and made the permanent church split

  • Rulers either remained catholic or turned protestant and enforced that upon their subjects

• Islam

  • Main Islamic Empires→ Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughal Empire

  • Acquired conflicts due to religious beliefs like the Christians

    • Shia-Sunni split→ The Ottomans and Safavids were beefing with each other

• Changes in South Asia

  • Mughal Empire→ Muslims acquired power

  • Bakhti Movement→Innovation on Hinduism that emphasized mystical experience in Union with many gods

  • Sikhism→ Exchanging and blending occurred with Bhakti and Sufi movement'

    • Syncretism between the belief in one god and the cycle of death and reincarnation

UNIT 4

4.1 Heimler Notes

Caravan, Carrack, Fluyt , lateen sail, compass, astronomical charts

Adopted technologies

• Sea-based Empires in Europe

  • Global Power shift to sea-based empires

• Magnetic Compas

  • Developed in china

  • For reckoning direction

• Astrolabe

  • Determines latitude and longitude by measuring stars

• Lateen Sail

  • Triangular-shaped sail

  • Developed by Arabs

  • Takes wind on either side

• Astronomical Charts

  • Diagrams of stars and constellation

  • Adopted through Muslims who assimilated it through Greece

• Technologies weren’t invented by Europeans but adopted them

  • Mostly due to merchants’ trade routes

European Innovations

• Devolopments of the portugese caravel

  • Went smaller so the ship could be more nimble on the water

    • More navigable + Easier to pass through shallow rivers

    • Equipped ships with cannons

• Portuguese Carrack

  • Large and can carry a lot of Cargo

  • Transported a lot of guns and weapons which assisted with their reign in the Indian Ocean Trade

• Dutch Fluyt

  • Dethroned the Portuguese within the Indian Ocean trade

  • Designed for trade

  • Massive Cargo hold

  • Small crews

  • Cheaper to build than other ships

  • Is later on responsible for half of Europe’s shipping

4.2 Heimler Notes

Role of states in maritime expansion, economic causes and effects of maritime expansion

State-Sponsored Maritime Exploration

• New era of sea-based empire-building was state-sponsored

  • Result of Significant changes in the distribution of power in European states

• Europe is recovering from the black death and the population is boosted once again

• European monarchs built up their militaries learned gunpowder usage, and implemented more efficient ways to tax people

• The motivation for sponsoring exploration was an increased desire for Asian and Southeast Asia spices aka pepper

  • Due to land-based empires controlling the trade of spices, European trade became expensive

Portugal Trading Post Empire

• Prince Henry the Navigator

  • Sponsored the first European attempts to find a water route to the Indian Ocean Tradework

• Motivation

  • Technology→ Caravel and Carrack

  • Economic→ Trans-Saharan Gold + Spices

  • Religious→ Desire to spread Christianity after conquering Reconquista from Muslims+ wished to find Pastor John

• Trading Post Empires

  • The main purpose was to facilitate trade cheaply

  • First Major Trading Post→ West Africa

    • Eager to trade due to their gold and fancy European ships

  • Vasco dama→ Established posts all down Western and Eastern Coasts

    • Found out that the Indian Ocean Network could make them more money than the rest of Africa after landing in Calicut

    • Established trading posts down East Asia

    • Europe had an easy time taking over the Indian Ocean trade due to their ships having more guns and weaponry than the others

Spain Sea-Based Empires

• Ferdinand and Isabella become intimidated due to the rapid economic

• Christopher Columbus

  • Sailed ships for the Portuguese at the beginning but then got his funding from Spain

  • Ended up the Caribbean islands after searching for Indian Spice traits

• Transatlantic trait became more prosperous later on

Other States’ empires

• Causes for Exploration

  • Political Rivarly

  • Envy

  • Desire for Welath

  • Need for Alternitave routes to Asia

• France

  • Sponsored expedition seeking westward passage to the Indian Ocean, it idn’t exist

  • Established themselves in North America with the Fur Trade

  • Quebec was established

  • Ded in large numbers due to diseases

• England

  • Elizabeth invested in westward expansion

  • England began expansion later on due to booming textile industry

  • Established Virgenia and then Jamestown

• Dutch Exploration

  • After gaining independence from spain, they became the wealthiest in Europe

  • Eventually dethroned the portugese within Africa

  • Most powerful within Indian Ocean Trade

  • Founded New Amsterdam in America

4.3 Notes Heimler

Causes of Columbian exchange and its effects on Eastern and Western Hemispheres

Horses, Pigs, Cattle, okra, and rice

Definition and Causes

• Columbian Exchange→ The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres

  • Occasion for a Massive Change in World History

  • Caused by contact between the old world and the new world

  • effects

    • Transfer of disease

      • Trade exposed people in Afro-Eurasia to each other’s diseases, they developed immunity but Americans didn’t

      • Malaria→ Transported through enslaved Africans transported for plantation killing Americans

      • Measles

      • Smallpox→ Killed half the population and in some areas 90%

        • Nicknames the Great Dying by the Americans

      • Made European power tripping easier

    • Plants and Food

      • Wheat, Grapes, and Olives brought from Europe

      • African food included bananas and sugar

        • America adopted their diet, increasing their lifespan

      • Americans gave away Maze, Potatoes, and Maniac

        • Diversified European Diets + Increased Population Health+ Population Growth

      • Cash Crops→ A method of agriculture in which food is grown primarily for export to other places

        • European colonies realized that they would become more wealthy quickly through new-world agriculture

      • Coerced Labor→ Did not have a choice in growing crops or not

        • Sugar Cane Operation→ Africans did all the hard work and the rest benefited from trading their harvest

      • Africans Brought Okra and Rice to America

    • Animals

      • Europeans ought sheep, cattle, and Pigs

        • Multiplied due to no predators creating the possibility for future ranching opportunities

        • Caused negative environmental effects heavily affecting the soil

        • Erosion became a huge issue due to mass grass consumption

      • Horse→ Allowed Americans to hunt large amounts of buffalo and largely impacted their living conditions

4.4 Heimler Notes

Ming China and Tokugawa Japan

Swahili Arabs, Omanis, Gujaratis, Javanese

State building and expnasion

European Trade Ascendency

• Indian Ocean Network

• Motives for imperialism

  • Gold, God, and Glory

  • Enrich themselves

  • Spread Christianity

  • Greatest state in the words

Portugese→ Tradings posts around Africa

Spanish→ Philippines

• Established colonies

• Ran colonies through tribute system, taxation, and coerced labor

Dutch→ Fluyts allowed them to take over

• Utilized same methods as Portuguese

• Established colonies in indonesia

England→ Set up a few trading posts in India due to them not being powerful enough to conquer it

• Posts will turn into colonies

Continuity in Change

• Middle Eastern, South Asia, East Asian, and SE Asian merchants used the trade network for centuries before the arrival of Europeans continued to use it

• European intrance increased profit of network for everyone

• Merchants like the Gujaraties in Mughal Empire continued to make use of Indian Ocean trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it + increased power and wealth

Asian Resistance

• Tokugawa Japan

  • United by Tokugawa Ieyasu who realized that Europeans were a threat

  • After many Japanese people became Christian and therefore, surrpressed the missionaries and faith within Japan

Ming China

• Voyages of Zheng He→ create a situation where most of maritime trade in Indian Ocean was processed through Chinese state

  • This resulted in Isolationist sea policies which led to the shut down sea-based trade china

  • Portuguese traded through bribery leading to their expulsion

Expansion of African States

• Asante Empire→ Key trading partner with portugese and British

  • Provided gold, ivory and enslaved laborers

  • Allowed them to expand their military, expand, and consolidate power throughout region

  • Repelled britain later on through wealth gained during trade

• Kongo

  • Diplomatic ties with portugese

  • Provided Gold, Copper, and Enslaved laborers

  • King and noles converted to Christianity

  • Portugal and Konog economic situation enriched the African State

Economic and Labor systems

• Existing labor systems→ Spanish made use of mit’a system

  • Inca developed system in which subjects of the empire were required to provide labor for state projects for a certain number of days per year

  • Spanish came looking for silver

  • Spanish implemented the Mit’a system for massive silver mining

• Chattel Slavery→ Race-Based

  • Owned as if they were property

  • Hereditaru

• Indentured Servitude

  • Conteact that a laborer would sign and bound them to work for a period of time aka 7 years

• Encomienda System

  • Created by the Spanish and used it to coerce indigenous laborers to work for colonial authority

  • Labor in exchange for food and protection which is similar to feudalism

• Hacienda system

  • Created by Spanish

  • Agricultural states owned by elite Spaniards where indigenous peoples were forced to work the fields whose crops were sold

  • This systems was more focused on economics of food export

Development of Slavery

• continuity

  • African Slave Trade→ Common in the Mediterranean and Indian trade networks

  • Cultural Assimilation

  • Domestic Work in Islam→ African Slaves became domestic servants with a high demand for enslaved women

  • Slaves held power in Islam→ Worked as soldiers and Bureaucrats

• Change→ Mostly In the Americas

  • Agricultural Work

    • Males were purchase 2:1 which impacted demographic of African States

  • Trans- Atlantic Slave trade

    • Size of this trade was bigger than Indian and Mediterranean trade

  • Racial Prejudice

    • In America, slavery became identified with blackness which justified brutality of slavery

4.5 Hemler Notes

Muslim European rivalry in Indian Ocean, Morrocean conflict with Songhai empire, Western Europe→ Wool and linen, India-Cotto, China-Silk

Economics of empire building

• Mercantilism→A state-driven economic system that emphasized the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade

  • Favorable balance of trade→ Merchants wanted more exports than imports

  • Motivation for establishing a growing empire because once a colony was established, it created a closed market to purchase exports from imperial parent country

• Joint-stock companies

  • Limited liability business that received funding by a group of investors

    • Limited liability→ Investors only lose money they invest in business

    • A government approved this business and granted it trade monopolies in various regions

    • Privately funded

  • States used merchants to expand their influence in other places and the merchants used the state to grant monopolies

  • Dutch East India Company

    • Established by the Dutch state granting the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean

    • Company investors became exceedingly rich

    • Dutch imperial government was able to expand its power and influence across many places throughout the Indian Ocean

  • British and France create their own Joint stock companies due to trade and imperial expansion

• Spain and Portugal fund trade through the state→ Leading to their influence waning

• Trade Network→ Change and continuity

  • Change

    • Atlantic system→ Movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the eastern and western hemisphere

      • Existing after Christopher Columbus's expedition

    • Sugar

      • Colonial plantations in the Caribbean specialized in sugar growth

      • Without abundance, sugar prizes began to decrease

    • Silver

      • In Bolivia, the Spanish exploited a massive silver mine, aka Potosi, which was transported into the wider European economy

      • Effects of Silver

        • Satisfied Chinese demand for silver

          • Further developed commercializing of their economy

        • Increased Profits

          • Goods purchased in Asian markets like silk, porcelain, and steel were traded across the Atlantic system resulting in more profits

        • Coerced Labor

          • Forced Indigenous labor

          • Indentured servitude

          • Enslaved Africans

  • Continuity

    • Afro-Eurasian Market tieves

      • Regional Market across Afro-Eurasia began to flourish + increase their reach

    • Asian Land Routes

      • Overland routes like Silk Road almost entirely controlled Asian land-based powers, like Ming China and Qing Dynasty

    • Peasant and Artisan Labor

      • Increase demand leads into increased product production

Social Effects of the African Slave trade

• Gender Imbalance

  • Due to intensive cultural practices, most of the people purchased were men

• Changed family structures

  • Because west African states were losing men to slavery, the practice of Polygony became common

• Cultural Synthesis within America

  • Due to the Slave trade and migrations from AfroEuroAsia to America, languages and cultures began to become mixed

    • Development of Creole language→ European and African languages and indigenous languages

Changing belief systems

• Catholic Christianity in south America

  • Spanish and Portugese imposed cultural and religious beliefs upon the indigenous people

  • Use of the printing press spread their ideas more

  • This resulted in indigenous groups outwardly adopting Christianity but continued to practice their own religious beliefs

    • Once discovered, violent outbreaks occurred

    • La Casas’s defense of Indigenous Americans established

  • The slow process of impositions leads to the mixing of beliefs

4.6 Heimler Notes

Local Resistance

• Fronde→ France

  • Absolutism→ Monarchs consolidated all power beneath themselves under Louis XIV

  • Edicts were passed that increased taxation among French subjects, and nobility led the peasants into resistance due to their power being undermined by the monarchy

  • Defeated and increased Absolutism and tyranny

• Queen Ana Nzinga’s resistance→ Africa

  • Matamba and Ndongo grew concerned with Portuguese merchants

  • Allied with the Dutch in order to kick out the Portuguese

• Pueblo Revolt→ North America

  • Abused through oppressive Spanish missionaries

  • Forced into Coerced labor due to Spanish projects + suffered from disease, severely declining their population

  • The leader was Pope and rebelled against the Spanish, killing missionaries and leaders

  • Successful at first but the Spanish come back and reconquered them

Resistance from the Enslaved

• Ordered around American Agriculture and export of cash crops like sugar, rice, and tobacco

  • Africans were shipped to assist in these agricultural efforts

• Maron Societies→ Caribbean and Brazil

  • In every enslaved society, there was a small population of freed blacks so enslaved people would run away and join those societies

  • The presence of Maroon communities served as an endless enticement for their workers to abandon fields and flee

  • Colonial militaries failed to wipe them out due to them using nature as a shield

  • Successful

• Stono Rebellion of 1739→ British colonies and North America

  • Occurred in South Carolina which specialized in indigo and rice

  • 100s of enslaved people stormed the armory and killed their enslavers

  • Crushed later on but left a sense of fear into slaveholding colonies

4.7 Heimler Notes

Expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal; the acceptance of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, Restrictive policies against Han Chinese in Qing China, Varying status of different classes of women within the Ottoman Empire, ottoman Timars, Russian Boyars, European nobility

Response to Ethnic Diversity

• Response ranged from expulsion to tolerance

• Expulsion

  • Treatment of Jews by Spain and Portugal

    • After defeating the Muslims, the Christian Europeans went after the Jews

    • Jews flee to Portugal

    • and experience similar treatment

• Tolerance

  • Treatment of Jews in the Ottoman Empire

    • Mehmed II opens up the empire to Jews

    • Jizya→ Tax on non-Muslims that the Jews had to pay

    • Only permitted to live in certain parts of the Empire

• Qing Dynasty

  • Manchus attempted to adopt certain trappings of traditional Chinese culture, Confucian principle of leadership, which made a sharp division between ethnic Manchu and Han people in the empire

  • High positions reserved for Manchus and Hand were repressed

  • Queue→ Traditional legally required braid imposed upon Han men by the Manchus

    • Humiliation of ethnic Han

• Mughal Tolerance of Diversity

  • Akbar refused the Gizia but also funded the construction of churches and temples, and mosques

Rise of New Elites

• Social Hierchies→ New economic opportunities of increasing global trade and the increased political power of imperial ventures led to the rise of new political elites

  • Casta System

    • Organized Spanish American society into a ranked social hierarchy that was based on race and heredity

    • prior to the imposition of the casta system, native people were part of a wid variety of linguistics and cultural groups

Struggles of existing elite

• Russian Boyars

  • Groups made up of aristocratic land-owning class in Russia exerted great power in the administration of empire for centuries

  • Peter the Great→ Rose to power, practiced absolutism, and removed power from boyars and consolidated it for himself

    • Boyars protested but failed as Peter abolished them

• Ottoman Timars

  • Land grants made by the Ottomans to an aristocratic class in payment to service the government, usually military service

  • Sultans took over timars and turned them into tax farms, redirecting revenue to the state

  • Became powerless and landless

UNIT 5

5.1 Heimler Notes

Intellectual and ideological context in which revolutions sparked across Atlantic

Effect of Enlightenment on societies

• Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Olympe de Gouges’s Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, Seneca Falls Conference (1848) organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott

Enlightenment→ Movement applying new ways of understanding, such as rationalism and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships

• Provided the ideological framework for future revolutions

• Rationalism→ Reason rather than emotion or any external authority is the most reliable source of knowledge

• Empiricism→ True knowledge is gained through the senses, rigorous experimentation

  • Both rationalism and empiricism were developed during the Scientific Revolution in Europe

• The most important aspect was the questioning and pre-examination of the role of religion

Scientific Revolution→ Scientists tossed biblical and religious authority away and used reason to discover how the world works

• Understood the cosmos, the internal function of the human body, etc

* Enlightenment took studies and ideologies developed during the scientific revolution and applied them to human philosophy

Christianity

• According to Enlightenment thinkers, it was a revealed religion + commands could not be questioned which was its problem

Enlightenment strips the authority of religion and replaces it with logical thinking

New Belief Systems

• Deism→ Exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinker

  • God created everything and then no longer intervened

• Atheism→ Complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of divine being

New Enlightenment Ideas

• Political Ideas

  • Indivisualism→ Most basic element of society was te individual human and not collective groups

  • Natural Rights→ Humans are born with natural rights that cannot be infringed upon by the government

    • John Lock argues that everyone deserves Life, Liberty, and Property and they were god given

  • Social Contract→ Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct governments of their own will to protect their natural rights

    • If the government fails, people have the right to overthrow it

Effects of Enlightenment Ideas

• Major Revolutions→ Including the Americas, Haitian, French, and Latin American revolutions

• Emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how the political power out to work played a role in great upheavals

• Nationalism→ Commnality among a people based on shared language, religion, and social customs, and linked with a desire for territory

• Led to the expansion of Suffarage→ Right to vote

  • America→ At first whites with land only, then all white males, then black males could vote

  • The reasoning is that liberty and equality were American enlightenment ideals beginning with the Declaration of Independence

• Abolition of slavery

  • Great Britain abolishes it first due to their Industrial Revolution wealth

  • Great Jamaica Revolt→ A massive slave rebellion in British Jamaica

    • Scale of Casualties influenced Britian’s decision to the abolition of slavery

• End of Serfdom

  • During the transition of Agricultural Economies to Industrial Economies during Industial Revolution, Serfs became unnecessary

  • Peasant Revolts resulted in Leaders of England, France, and Russia to abolish them

• Increasing Calls for Women’s Sufferage

  • Feminist movements→ Women began to demand equality in all areas of life including voting

  • Olympe de Gouges→ French activist who wrote the Declaration of the Rights of the Women and the female citizen criticized France

  • Seneca Falls Convention→ Led by an American woman calling for an amendment calling for a right to vote

5.2 Heimler Notes

Explain causes and effects of various revolutions

§ Propaganda Movement in the Philippines, Maori nationalism and the New Zealand wars in New Zealand, Puerto Rico—writings of Lola Rodríguez de Tió, German and Italian unifications, Balkan nationalisms, Ottomanism

Causes of Revolutions

• Nationalism

  • Utilized in some states to foster a sense of unity among their people

    • Nationalist themes in schools, Public Rituals, and pushing people in Military service

    • Russians reacquired people to only speak Russian which backfired

• Political Discontent

  • Widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule

  • Atlantic Revolutions

    • Took place in the context of a much more generalized rejection of authority across the world

  • Safavid Empire→ attempted to impose new taxes leading to rebellions from various militaristic nomadic groups

    • This led to the weakening of the empire and outside invaders put an end to the empire

  • Ottoman Empire

    • Wahhabi Movement→ Reformed the corrupted form of Islam endemic in Ottoman Empire which combined with other issues led to the eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire

• New Ways of Thinking

  • The development of new ideologies and systems of government

  • Enlightenment thinkers, Lock, Russo, and Montesquieu conceived a new governmental structure

    • Popular Soverienghty→ Power to govern was in the hands of the people

    • Democracy→ People have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government

    • Liberalism→ Emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative government, protection of private property, and economic freedom

Atlantic Revolutions

• New ideologies

  • American Revolution

    • Americans develop a culture, system of government, and economy due to the vast distance between them and Britain

    • Seven Years’ War→ Fought I North America resulting in War debt for the British

      • Britain uses colonies to pay off debts through maximum taxation without representation

    • Began taxation, the removement of previous American rights, and the uprising of Enlightenment ideologies

    • Due to French help, Americans won the war

    • Victory inspired other nations throughout the world for successful overthrow for other nations throughout the world for overthrow of oppressive power and establishment of a republican-style government

  • French revolution

    • Due to assistance in the American Revolution, ideals of democracy flourished within French soldiers

    • Louis the 16th attempted to exploit the French to pay for their war debts leading to a revolt that overthrew the government and established a republic

    • The creation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen similar to a constitution

  • Haitian Revolution

    • Colonial Property of France→ Most prosperous colony in the world

    • Upon hearing of the French Revolution, they became inspired to do the same

    • Toussant Louverte led this movement

    • Won against the French, establishing the second republic in the western hemisphere and the first black government

  • Latin American Revolutions

    • Spanish and Portuguese colonies were influenced by Enlightenment ideas

      • Resentment towards their mother countries grew especially in the Creole class

      • Creoles were mad that Penisulares were getting better treatment

      • Simon Bolivar→ Creole military leader appealing to colonial subjects across racial lines with enlightenment ideals known as Letter from Jamaica

      • Letter From Jamaica→ Popular sovereignty, right to self-rule

      • Many formed their own republics

Other Nationalist movement

• Propaganda movement in the phillipines→A Spanish colony that had a similar social hierarchy as Latin America

  • Spanish controlled education

  • Only wealthy Creoles and mezistoes got a university education

  • Through those educational opportunities, they were exposed to nationalist ideals that they brought back home

  • Philippine revolution breaks out due to the attempt by the Spanish to suppress those thoughts in the colony

• Nationalism leads the unification of Germany and Italy and fragmented regions

5.3 Heimler Notes

How environmental factors contributed to industrialization

• Industrial Revolution→ Process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies

  • Hand to machine

  • Changed the world’s balance of power, reordered society, and made industrial nations rich

Why Great Britain came first

• Proximity to waterways

  • Allowed for easier transportation and trade of products

• Geographical Distribution of Coal and Iron

  • The first phase of the revolution was the burning of Coal which Britain had a lot of

  • Increased efficiency in the production of Iron which they used to construct machines and railroads contributing to industrialization

• Abundant access to reform resources

  • India gave them cotton, US provided timber

• Improved agricultural productivity

  • Before the Industrial Revolution, it experienced an agricultural revolution in which the amount of food grown on farms increased significantly

• Agricultural Revolution

  • Crop Rotation→ Kept land unplanted, fertility of soil would be maintained

  • Seed Drill→ Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and greater harvests

  • New foods entering from Colombian exchange such as the potato made them healthier and increased life expectancy

• Rapid Urbanization

  • Farming became mechanized meaning fewer people were needed to work the fields

  • This led to mass migration to urban areas by rural people due to job opportunities in factories

• Legal Protection of Private Property

  • Britain passed laws to protect entrepreneurs which contributed to their head start in industrialization as entrepreneurs felt safe enough to take the risk of starting new investments

• Accumulation of Capital

  • On top of the wealth gained from the Atlantic slave trade, Britain had people who had access to capital, known as Capitalists

The Factory System

• Concentrated production in a single location, powered by moving water due to water damage which was connected to a spinning Jenny that manufactured textiles

• Specialization of Labor→ Before the mass production methods, goods by artisans who hand-made all the steps for products

• Now machines making goods made workers temporary and replaceable

5.4 Heimler Notes

Explain how different modes and location of production devoloped and changed over time

Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia, Iron works in India, Textile production in India and Egypt

The effect of steam power

• Steam Engine→A machine that converts fossil fuels into mechanical energy

  • Factories used to be water-powered meaning they had to be built next to that source but a steam engine runs on coal and fuel meaning it could be located anywhere

  • The pace of the Industrial Revolution increased rapidly

• Steamships→ Mass-produced goods could be transported quicker and faster

Shifting world Economics

• Some places industrialized quickly while others did so slowly

• The difference between those who adopted slowly and quickly is the degree to which they acquired those factors

• Slow Adopters

  • Land Locked

  • Lacked abundant coal

  • Hindered by historically powerful groups

• Quick Adopters

  • Check 5.3

The world became divided into Industrialized nations and non-industrialized nations

• Industrialized Nations→ US, Britain, and France

• Non-industrialized Nations→ Middle East and Asia began to decline

Deline of Textile Production in India and Egypt

• British Textiles were cheaper and mass-produced, therefore, overtook the textile industry

Decline of Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia

• At first, began to decline but started to regain power after Britain took over those regions

Industrialized Nations Compared

• Western Europe- France

  • Adopted industrial technologies after the fall of Napoleon

  • Slower industrialization than Britain

    • Due to their lack of Coal and Iron

  • Napolean lays the beginning of the Industrial Revolution due to the construction of Quentin Canal

  • The government developed railroads and created textile and cotton industries reviving their silk industries

  • Due to their slower industrialization, France was spared the social upheavals Britain experienced because of the rapid transition

• United States

  • Industrialized quickly due to the fact it shared the same elements that Britain had

    • Massive territory and access to natural resources

    • political stability

    • Rapid population growth

• Russia

  • Tsar adopted industrial technologies out of fear that they would fall behind

    • Railroad and steam Engine Technology

  • Constructed Trans-Siberian Railroad→ Led to an increase in trade with eastern states like China

    • Created an interdependent market throughout Russia

  • The top-down approach yielded brutal conditions for workers leading to uprises and the Russian Revolution of 1905

  • Russian industrialization was a state-driven affair in response to Russia’s lagging development compared to Western Europe

• Japan

  • Meiji Restoration→ Japanese industrial period after viewing the abuse China received from other states due to their lack of industrialization

    • Borrowed heavily from Western technology and education

    • Industrialized so quickly that it would go on to become the most powerful state in the region

5.5 Heimler Notes

How technology shaped economy over time

First Industrial Revolution

• 1750-1830 by Great Britain

• Coal was the main Fuel

  • The main engine was a Steam engine

  • Developed and improved by James Watt aka a British Scientist

    • Because steam engine factories can be built anywhere and not just next to rivers

    • Used to power locomotives which made transporting mass-produced goods quicker and steamships

  • Suez Canal Shorten the trip from Europe to Asia leading to the multiplication of steamships and the expansion of trade

Second Industrial Revolution

• 1870-1940 Europe, USA, Russia, and Japan

• Oil was the marker for this Revolution

  • Led to the production of internal combustion engines to harness the energy of gasoline

  • Smaller and more efficient than the steam engine which would later on power the automobile

  • Both sources of fuel dramatically increased the amount of energy available to humans during this period even if it came with significant environmental costs like air pollution

• Effects of New Technology

  • Steel→ Main building material

    • Bessemer Process, combined with carbon and blasted hot air into it

      • Strong and more versatile than iron alone

    • Cheaper to produce

  • Chemical Engineering

    • Synthetic dyes were Developed for textiles

    • Made it cheaper

    • Rubber→ Vulcanization was a process developed to make rubber harder and more durable

      • Later used to make belts for machines and tires

  • Electricity

    • Thomas Edison harnesses the power of light bulbs which lit factories and homes

    • Electric streetcars and subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities that were large and complex

  • Telegraph

    • Samuel Morse

    • Allowed communication over long distances through Morse code

    • Telegraph wire was under the Atlantic Ocean connecting Britain and USA further developing their economies

Effects of New Technologies

• Developments of Interior Regions

  • Through the expansion of railroads + Transcontinental roads, new settlements were developed in places that were more difficult to reach

  • More stuff and more sold and growth of the economy

• Increase in Trade and Migration

  • Global Trade multiplied by a factor of ten between 1859 and 1913

  • States across the world became more closely interlinked into a global economy

  • Steamship caused half of Europe´s entire population to migrate from rural areas to Urban Manufacturing centers in search of job opportunities

  • Famine and Political tension in the 19th century led to many British people migrating to America, Australia, and South Africa

5.6 Heimler Notes

Egyptian (Ottoman) Industrialization

• In states that adopted industrialization, western Europe and the US, the transformation of their economies and their share of the global balance of power was shifted in their favor

• Egypt attempts its version of industrialization to not be taken advantage of by the European and US

• Ottomans were struggling and declining due to internal corruption and conflict and therefore had little energy or wealth to invest in industrialization

  • Would change under the Tanzamat reform

• Mohammad ALi→ Leads Egypt to industrialize on its own which further erode its dependence on the Ottomans

Tanzamat Reform under Mohammad Ali

• Industrial Projects

  • Textile and weapon factories built

• Agriculture

  • The government purchased crops from peasants such as wheat and cotton, to be sold on the world market

• Tariffs

  • Taxes on imported goods

  • Protected development of the Egyptian economy

• Great Britain is not happy with the sudden industrialization attempts due to crossing Egypt being the quickest way across trade networks

  • Egypt went to war with the ottoman in 1839 Britain intervened and forced Egypt to remove the tariffs and barriers on trade that protected the Egyptian industry

Japanese Industrialization

• During the Tokugawa shogunate, they almost completely isolated from Western influence and trade

• Factors that changed Japanese Isolation

  • Western Powers

    • Western powers dominate other Asia states like China

  • Mathew Perry

    • US commodore Mathew Perry came to Japan with a fleet of steam-powered ships stacked with guns

    • Sent a note intimidating Japan to open its ports along with a surrender flag

• Japan decides to initiate an aggressive state-sponsored program of industrialization as a defensive measure against Western domination

  • Facilitated through a Japanese civil war in 1868 leading to the overthrow of the shogunate and the establishment of an emperor

• Meiji Restoration

  • Japan sought to escape foreign domination by adopting industrial practices that had made the West powerful

  • Culture

    • Sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn about their technology, culture, education systems, and political arrangements implemented in their own state

  • Government

    • Established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament which borrowed from Germany

  • Infrastructure

    • Funded the building of railroads, the establishment of a national banking system, and the development of industrial factories for textile and munitions

5.7 Heimler Notes

The slow death of mercantilism

• Mercantilism

  • State-driven system

  • Played a crucial role in European exploration and imperialism

• Mercantilism was abandoned in this period and replaced with free-market economics

• Free market economics→ Better fit industrialization and market-driven

• The transition occurred due to the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith

  • Claimed that mercantilism was coercive and only benefits the elite

  • Argued for Laissez faire→ Government has less influence on the economy and the people’s demands run the market

  • Invisible hand→ Interaction between supply and demand

• After 1818 several Western governments abandoned some of their state regulations on trade which resulted in increased trade and greater wealth

• Free Market economics overworked laborers and they were exceedingly poor and labored under duress

Free Market Critics

• Jeremy Bentham→ Argued the cure for the suffering of the working class and society was not free market economics but government legislation

• Friedrich List→ Rejected global free market principles as a trick the British were trying to play on the rest of the world to bring other economies under its domination

  • His work led to the development of the Zollverein, a customs union that reduced trade barriers between German states but put tariffs on imported goods

Trans-national corporations

• A company established and controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in other countries

• Hong Kong and Shangai Banking Corperation→ British controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial ventures

• Unilever Corporation→ Join company established by the British and Dutch that manufactured household goods, known for soap

  • Sourced material from West Africa/ Belgian Congo

• led to new financial practices to fun these businesses

  • Stock Markets→ Small portions of ownership in corporation

    • New York Stock Exchange→ Company profited and stockholders did too as a result

  • Limited Liability → Organized business to protect the financial investments

    • Owners could take risks by investing money into a corporate venture but enjoyed protection

Effects of Industrial Capitalism

• All western industrialized nations were richer in1900 than 1800

  • The main effect is the rising standard of living in greater access to consumer goods that people enjoyed in those places

• Rapid industrialization societies created a new and growing middle class wealthy enough to purchase mass-produced products

• Continued development of mechanized farming led to abundant harvesters

5.8 Heimler Notes

Calls for reform

• Political reforms→ Western nations have been recognizing the right to vote for people within the population

  • This led to the rise of mass-based political parties that aimed to represent the interests of workers

  • Conservatives and liberals in Britain and France incorporated social reforms into their platforms because people who wanted reforms were voting

• Social Reform

  • Working-class people organized themselves into social societies providing insurance for sickness and social events

• Educational Reforms

  • Between 1870 and 1914, European Governments passed compulsory education laws to get boys and girls into school

  • High-paying jobs became more technical and specialized, and compulsory education prepared children for these jobs

• Urban Reforms

  • Due to the intense crowding of industrial cities whose infrastructure was not able to keep up + Urban areas were stanky

  • Governments passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers

Rise of labor unions→ A collective of workers who join together to protect their own interest

• Before this, no one worker could create change within the system

• Gave workers the power to negotiate with employers to improve their lives

• As they spread through multiple continents, they obtained higher wages, limited working hours, and improved working conditions

• Some unions turned into political parties

  • German Social Democratic Party→ Advocated for Marxist reform

    • Aimed to transform the system of private ownership of means of production to social ownership

Ideological Reactions- Marxism

• Karl Marx→ German man who lived in Britain

  • capitalism was unstable by nature

  • Created sharp class divisions

• Result of his ideals, violent revolutions of the lower class against the upper class caused a classless society

• Marx and Friederich Engles published ideals in the communist manifesto

  • Referred to their approach as scientific socialism

• Marx argued

  • History obeys laws just as the physical world obeys laws of physics

  • History moved through patterns and stages

  • History’s major energy arises out of class struggle

  • Intense societal changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution violently increased the division between two groups of Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

• Bourgeouisie→ Owned means of production

• Proletariat→ Exploited by Bourgeoisie

  • After realizing that they were being used, they rose in revolution overthrowing the Bourgousie marking the end of the class struggle

China Attempts industrialization

• Qing China

  • Snubbed English traders creating a trade deficit and the British fought back by importing illegal opium

  • Began to acquire negative consequences for the Chinese

    • Led to the Opium Wars

  • Opium Wars

    • Due to the industrialization of Britain, they easily defeated the Qing and forced them to sign unequal treaties that opened several trading ports against their will

    • Other industrialized nations took advantage of China’s weakness and carved it into various spheres of influence in which they had exclusive trading routes

    • China responds with a self-strengthening movement

      • A series of reforms that sought to take steps toward industrialization and revitalized culture

      • Full benefits were hindered due to Chinese conservatives who resisted developments because reforms threatened the land-owning class

    • Sino-Japanese War

      • Challenged the self-strengthening movement

      • Deemed it a failure because China lost due to increased Japanese industrialization

Ottoman Modernization

• Tanzimat Reform→ Defensive industrialization reform

  • Built Textile Factories

  • Implemented Western-style law codes and Courts

  • Expansive education systems

All of which were more secular and divorced from the historic Islamic character of the empire

Young Ottomans

• Desired a European-style parliament and a constitutional government that would limit the power of absolutist sultans

• Sultan concedes but when war ensues he returns to his old ways

More effective than China’s reform

5.9 Heimler Notes

New Social Classes

• Industrial Working Class

  • Made up of factory workers

  • Rural farmers moved to urban areas for better jobs leaving them homeless and starving

  • Due to the lack of need for skill within factory workers, they were viewed as easily replaceable

  • Benefits

    • Wages were higher than those in rural places

  • Costs

    • Denager of factory work and mining

    • Crowded living conditions in shoddy tenements

• Middle Class

  • benefitted the most from industrialization, including white-collar workers such as wealthy factory owners and managers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers

  • Could afford manufactured products that improved their quality of life and some in the upper middle class could bury their way into the aristocracy

  • Claimed that those who did not rise to this class were lazy

• Industrialists

  • At the top of the social hierarchy, the wealth they gained by owning industrial corporations allowed them to become more powerful than the traditional landed aristocracy

Women and Industrialization

• Working Class Women

  • Worked wage-earning jobs in factories since their husbands’ wages were sufficient to sustain a family (if they were married)

• Children as young as five worked at factories and mines

  • While children were still working, they were doing so apart from the traditional context of family

  • Due to the dangerous conditions of factories, governments attempt to remove children and put them in schools

• Middle-Class women

  • husbands support the family

  • Did not work

  • Remain in separate spheres and become domestic

  • Middle-class women were increasingly defined by their domestic roles as homemakers whose main task was to create a safe haven for their working men and a nurturing environment in which they raised children

Challenged on industrialization

• Rapid-pace industrialization meant the industrial cities grew too quickly for their infrastructure to keep up

• Pollution

  • Coal smoke covered factories and steamships hovered towns resulting in a toxic fog

  • Industrial and Human waste dumped into rivers polluting drinking water

• Housing shortages

  • Mass migration leads to shortages in housing leading to the creation of tenements and dirty run-down apartments

    • This led to the spread of diseases like cholera and typhoid

• Increased Crime

  • People stole to survive and violent crimes rose due to high levels of alcohol consumption in poorer neighborhoods

UNIT 6

6.1 Unit HEIMLER Notes

Ideologies contributing to development of imperialism

2nd wave of imperialism→ New motivations

• Nationalism

• Scientific racism

• Social Darwinism

• Civilizing mission

Nationalism- describes a sense of commonality among a group of people based on shared language, religion, and social customs, and that is often linked with a desire for self-rule within a territory.

• sovereign is what people understood themselves before this period as subject to a king, queen, emperor, etc

• In this period, due to enlightenment, people’s loyalties are becoming linked to their people aka their nation rather than the ruler

• Influence of nationalism on historical developments of nations

  • the Italian unification and German unification were the results of the nationalistic desires of people who wanted to live in a consolidated state of their own

  • Led imperial states into a rivalry to claim larger empires across the world to achieve a greater power status and prove that they were better than everybody

Scientific Racism- humans can be hierarchically ranked in distinct biological classes based on race.

• Europeans attempt to separate the human race with colors the white and the non-white

• Phrenology- the study of the size of the human skull. Used to state that because whites had a bigger head, they were smarter and therefore more superior + their abuse of other races was justified

Social Darwinism- Charles Darwin's theory

• states that species survived because they are better adapted + people developed from natural selection

• Aka only the fittest survived

• If only the fittest survive and thrive in nature, then, applied to human society that means the Western industrial societies have proven that their ways are the best suited for the current global environment

Civilizing Mission→ a sense of duty Western societies possessed to bring the glories of civilization to lower societies aka White man´s burden by Rudyard Kipling

• Sending Christian missionaries

• Reorganizing colonial governments into Western models

• Imposition of western education

  • Goal: suppress indigenous language and culture

HEIMLER UNIT 6.2 NOTES

Which state power shifted in various parts of the world

Private ownership of congo by king leopard II to belgium government, From dutch east india compaqny to dutch government control in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. Britain in west africa, Belgium in west congo, and france in west africa. Settler colony New Zealand

Historical Developments

• Shifting Geographical focus 1450-1750

  • Americas, Asia, and Southeast Asia were the focus of European powers

• Shifting Geographical focus 1750-1950

  • Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia was the focus of European powers

• Change in Imperial States 1450-1750

  • Spain and Portugal

• Change in Imperial States 1750-1900

  • Spain and Portugal (Declining)

  • Great Britain, France, and Dutch (Cont.)

  • Germany, Italy, Belgium, the United States, and Japan(New)

Private to State Control→ Colonies that were controlled by businesses and individuals rather than the government

• Congo Free state

  • Private colony held by King Leopard II of Belgium

  • Belgium just become independent after the second of imperialism and they decided it would be foolish to go and conquer others when they were not yet stable but the king did not follow that advice

    • The reason is he claimed that he was humanitarian, and intended to convert the indigenous people to Christianity and bring them the glories of Western education

    • All of this was a lie and led to him abusing the colony for raw materials like rubber resulting in the loss of millions of lives

  • Belgium's government took control of Congo and administrated themselves

• Indonesia

  • Takes over Indonesia from the Dutch East India Company

• British India

  • The British government takes over India from the British East India Company

Diplomacy and Warfare

• Diplomacy→ The act of making political agreements using dialogue and negotiation, not warfare

• Colonization of Africa through Diplomacy

  • Berlin Conference→ Europeans had a scramble for Africa(Fueled imperialism) in which they negotiated how to divide the African continent to avoid warfare

    • This led to the drawing of borders in Africa that divided previously united ethnic groups and brought together rival ethnic groups leading to further disputes within the content down the line

• Colonization of Africa through Warfare

  • France and Algeria→ France was in debt to Algeria who supplied France with its wheat. Attempting to negotiate the prices, a French diplomat was sent and was swatted three times by the Algerian ruler so the French tried to conquer Algeria, the french ultimately win

• Settler colonies→ A colony in which an imperial power claims an already inhabited territory and sends its people to set up an outpost of their society

  • Examples include Western Australia, South Australia, and New Zealand which were controlled by the British government

    • Introduced diseases(Aborigines and Maori) and created a new European society

• Conquering neighboring territories

  • United state

    • Manifest Destiny→ The desire to expand westward into the US which displaced indigenous peoples

      • Forced indigenous children to go through US schooling and stripping their culture

  • Russia

    • Pan-Slavism→ Unite all Slavic peoples under Russian authority, including all who currently lived under Ottoman and Austrian rule

      • Led to numerous campaigns to claim neighboring territory

    • Trading post in Vladivostok and claimed step lands of the khaak nomads and then expanded into 3 USC states to the south

  • Japan

    • One major non-Western power

      • Through their rapid industrialization during the Meiji Restoration, Japan built thousands of railroads + Modernized military

    • Expanded influence over Korea, Manchuria, and part of China

UNIT 6.3 HEIMLER NOTES

how and why internal and external factors have influenced the process of state building

Túpac Amaru II’s rebellion in Peru, Samory Touré’s military battles in West Africa, Yaa Asantewaa War in West Africa, 1857 rebellion in India New states:Establishment of independent states in the Balkans, Sokoto Caliphate in modern-day Nigeria, Cherokee Nation, Zulu Kingdom Rebellions:Ghost Dance in the U.S., Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement in Southern Africa, Mahdist wars in Sudan

Causes of resistance

• increasing questions about political authority

  • Many imperial powers introduced Western-style education to some folks under the imperial thumb

    • this included enlightenment thoughts: Popular sovereignty and social contract which caused the child races to question the imperial powers

• Growing sense of Nationalism

  • imperial powers imposed their will and their language and their culture on various colonized people, which had a way of including a sense of nationalism in the conquered peoples

Direct resistance → People fight back with weapons and violence

• Indian Rebellion of 1875

  • Sought to throw off the British domination

• Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II

  • Occurred in Peru ended in Tupac Amati’s execution and his families

• Yaa Asantewaa war

  • Britain became greedy and desired more territory in West Africa to expand their Golden Coast colony, made 4 attempts to conquer the Assante Kingdom to reach their rich deposits of gold

  • Otherwise referred to as the “War of the Golden Stool” this stool represented their cultural unity + the person who sits upon it has the authority to rule them

  • Yaa Asantewaa led her people into rebellion against the British + used armed violence in the process + shaming the men into making them fight

  • The weaponry of the British was more advanced than theirs and therefore ended up winning

  Creation of New States

• Cherokee Nation

  • caused by the Indian Removal Act

    • Removed the Cherokee along with other indigenous people from eastern territory to Oklahoma territory down the trail of tears

  • Included a semi-autonomous + Judicial system

  • Through further expansion of the US, this nation was conquered later on

Religious Rebellion

• Ghost Dance Movement

  • represented resistance to U.S. Indian policy and American culture and was a rallying point for preserving traditional Indian culture.

• Xhosa cattle-killing movement

  • imperial Britain overloads again trying to take over the territory of the Kosa people, Britain acquired better guns + better communication technology= Britain conquered a lot of land

  • Kosa Cattle were dying off due to disease that came from Europeans

  • This led to a religious movement led by prophet Nongqawuse stating that if they slaughtered their cattle then new healthy cattle would replace them. Then the ancestral debt would drive the Europeans out which only led to starvation and complete British control

UNIT 6.4 AP CLASSROOM NOTES

how various environmental factors contributed to the development of the global economy

Cotton production in Egypt, Rubber extraction in the Amazon and the Congo basin, The palm oil trade in West Africa, The guano industries in Peru and Chile, Meat from Argentina and Uruguay, Diamonds from Africa

Industrial Production and Imperialism

• The growing population created an increasing need for more food supplies

• Increasingly industrial economy needed more raw materials

• Increased production led to a search for new markets to sell manufactured goods

Export Economies

• Economies that depend on exporting raw materials or cash crops

• Less emphasis on the domestic production of manufactured goods

• New colonial territories provided raw materials

• Economies of some independent states also depended on the export of a few or a single raw material or cash crop

  • Cotton production in Egypt

  • Rubber extraction from Congo

  • Pal Oil West Africa

  • Meat(beef) in Argentina

  • Diamonds in Africa

  • Guano in Peru, Chile

• Developed out of a need for more raw materials and food supply

• Driven by industrialization

• Colonial territories or other states that shifted to mainly exporting one or a few raw materials, cash crops, or other food items

• Railroads allowed for the further abuse of colonized countries as it made it easier for colonial powers to connect them making it easier, faster, and cheaper to get their raw resources

• Steamships were developed to travel longer distances resulting in the development of a refrigerator system to export meat and dairy without it expiring

• Telegraph played a key role in communication

Agricultural Products→

• Substance farming was abandoned and replaced with cash crop farming. Grown for commercial reasons rather than to feed families.

• Damaging affect on subject nations

• Food prices increased as there was less substantial foods being produced and more cash crops were being produced

• Guano→ poop from birds used as fertilizer

Raw Materials

• Rubber barons forced indigenous people into virtual slavery

Minerals

• Mexico produced silver.

• Chile produced copper, which was used for telegraph cables and electrical power lines.

• Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and the Belgian Congo produced copper.

• Bolivia, Nigeria, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies produced tin, which helped meet the growing demand for food products in tin cans.

• Australia and South Africa, as well as parts of West Africa and Alaska, produced large deposits of gold.

Rhodes became the prime minister of the Cape Colony where his racist policies paved the way for the apartheid, or racial segregation, that plagued South Africa during the 20th century.

Monoculture

• Lack of agricultural diversity especially in developing nations

• A concept that created long-term damage to many state’s farming land which made them have to import the food that their people needed straining the economy

UNIT 6.5 AP CLASSROOM NOTES

Economic Imperialism

• A state or a business has a large amount of economic power or influence on another state

• State or business invests in developing natural resources

• Contributes to the development of export economies

• Gave merchants and companies an advantage in the trade of many commodities

• Occurred in Latin America(Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Caribbean) , Asia(India, China, and Indonesia), Africa(Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Congo), Pacific( Hawaii)

• CHINA

  • Chinese goods were in high demand in Britain but no British goods were in demand in China, Trade in China was restricted to a single Chinese port

  • This resulted in a trade imbalance + Britain wanted to fix that

  • Opium was grown in India by force, opium was sold in great mass to China for silver, and used for profits to buy Chinese goods to send back to Britain = The Chinese were not happy

  • Chinese attempt to stop this didn’t work leads to the Opium wars ( France assisted in these wars)→ China lost and was then taken advantage of by all colonial powers including Japan

  • This leads to more trading rights for each nation and open ports to foreign trade China is greatly dominated by foreign states

  • Treaty of Nankon

  • Sphere of influence

• Cultural system→forced farmer to choose between cash crops to export or corvee labor, compulsory unpaid work

  • If crops failed, then the villagers were held accountable for it

• Africa

  • The unfair trade led to them having to further rely on European powers economically

  • The growing of cash crops kept leading to famines

  • Egypt and Sudan specialized in cotton

• Slavery in Africa

  • Banned in British colonies but continued in other parts of Africa

  • The French heavily relied on the slaves however

  • Later on, abolished and suppressed

• Latin America

  • Heavy investments were made by the US after the Second Industrial Revolution that supported infrastructure, railroads, mining, guano, meat and plantation fridges, etc

  • Monroe Doctorine→US policy fending off European influence and therefore claiming North and South America as theirs only

UNIT 6.6 AP CLASSROOM NOTES

Migration

• Demographics in industrialized and unindustrialized societies changed

• Challenged how people lived for a long time

• Demographics→ a study of a population based on age, sex, race, employment, etc

• Challenged in unindustrialized areas include famine, drought leading to death and displacement such as the Potato famine in Ireland which made them migrate to North America, Europe, Australia, etc

• Push and Pull factors

• Imperial governments encouraged plantations of personal farms leading to the displacement of more natives and the new modes of transportation allowed internal and external migrants to relocate to cities to find employment leading to urbanization

• Usually worked overseas for a while and then returned to their families

Economic Changes influence migrants

• Many individuals chose freely to relocate in search of work

  • Second or third sons

  • Impoverished farmers

  • Educated young men

• The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semi-coerced labor migration:

  • Slavery

  • Indentured servitude (Chinese/Indians)

  • Convict laborers who committed crimes got shipped for labor as punishment

6.7 NOTES

Changes in home societies

• External and Internal migration changed demographics and gender roles in the societies they left.

• Women gained authority and independence as men migrated and left their responsibilities to them.

• Remittance: money sent in the mail.

• Male immigrants often provided remittance to their wives back home where they could reduce their working hours and manage their budget more.

Effects of Migration on Recieving Societies

• Ethnic Enclaves: location where area an ethnic group is clustered yet socially and economically distinct from the majority group.

• Immigrants spread their culture to their new communities and tried to live life like back home.

• Chinese migration to Southeast Asia allowed them to thrive as business owners and eventually control trade in the region.

• Chinese came to the Americas for the gold rush but became indispensable workers in construction under contract.

• Gold Rush: discovery of new gold deposits in the Americas which caused massive migration.

• Indians migrated to South Africa for construction labor where they spread their culture but also caused discrimination (apartheid) which Ghandi worked to remove.

• National Indian Congress: A political movement started in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government.

• Indians moved to Southeast Asia where they could work with their family (kangani system)

• Indians sent to the Caribbean for sugar plantation work became largest ethnic group in most of the region

• American Canal System: construction project that ran through the Isthmus of Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

• Scots-Irish: Irish descendants of Scottish migrants to Ireland.

• Irish immigrants in America had influence on dancing, holidays, and promotion of improved labor conditions.

• Second-generation Irish became icons in popular culture.

• Italian mostly spoken in Argentina's major cities today as 55% of the population from Italian descent.

• Italian migration improved the standard of living in Argentina quickly.

Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration

• California constitution implemented many policies discriminating against the mass Chinese worker population.

• Chinese Exclusion Act: A 10-year ban on Chinese laborers immigrating to the United States.

• Mexico promoted immigration for the banned Chinese.

• Chinese Immigration Act (1855): Parliament of Victoria limited the number of Chinese passengers on a vessel.

• Chinese attacked by white miner in South Australia, many killed.

• Chinese immigration regulation and Restriction Act 1861: Attempted to restrict the amount of Chinese immigrants into New South Wales.

• Influx of Chinese Restriction act: Entrance tax to restrict Chinese immigration into New South Wales.

• China towns: Chinese enclaves.

• White Australia Policy: A series of policies set to forbid/restrict immigration, Mainly Chinese.

UNIT 7

7.1 Notes Heimler

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• Many of their maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new states

• ¨Sick Man Of Europe¨ to ¨Dead Man of Europe¨

• Tanzimat Reform→ Attempting defensive industrialization program

• Young Ottomans→ A group of youthful Ottomans that had been educated in Western ideas and called for liberal political reforms

  • The sultan agreed to some of the demands and created a parliament and a constitution

    • After Russia threatened them with war, the sultan went back to being a dictator

  • Nationalism led them to envision the Ottomans as Turkic with the exclusion of the rest of the minor ethnic groups within the empire

  • Ended up getting rid of the sultan later on

  • Ottoman Reforms

    • Secularization of schools and law codes

    • Establishment of political elections

    • Imposition of Turkic language

    • The implementation of these nationalistic policies alienated other minorities which resulted in those groups experiencing waves of nationalism which further fractured the empire

The collapse of the Russian Empire

• The Russian Revolution

  • Made some efforts toward industrialization under the heavy hand of the Zar Alexander the Second

  • Middle Class→Created by industrialization began to resent the authoritarian policies and demanded representation within the government decisions

    • Later on, suffered from state-sponsored industrialization which led to the Russian Revolution

  • Nicholas provided demands such as a constitution, labor unions, and labor parties but he would later on ignore those reforms and continue his dictatorship

    • This caused tensions to rise once again and WW I made it even worse

  • WW I continued the difficulties of industrialization then led to the Russian Revolution of 1917 which was led by Marxist visionary Vladimir Lenin who was the leader of a political party known as the Bolsheviks

  • The revolution was successful = the Bolsheviks seized power and established a communist state and the Soviet Union

Collapse of Qing China

• Qing Problems

  • Taiping Rebellion

    • ut down by Qing Authorities

    • Cost millions of lives and money

  • Loss of Opium Wars

  • Loss of Sino-Japanese War

    • China was no match for industrialized Japan

• Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists

  • Boxer Rebellion→ Against Ching authorities whom they viewed as foreigners

    • Had to rely on Western Powers for financial support

      • Later on, they imposed demands on a weakened China for their benefits

  • Sun Yat Sin→ A Western educator who resulted in the abdication of the Ching emperor

• China emerges as a communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong

The Mexican Revolution

• Porfirio Diaz→ angered every social class in Mexico with his policies and banded together to get rid of him

• A decade of civil war ensured peasant armies led by Poncho Villa and Emiliano Zapata but both unsuccessful

• Mexico emerged as a republic with a constitution that had reforms that prevented the acts that led to the Revolution to begin with.

7.2 Notes Heimler

Causes of WWI

• Militarism→ The belief that states out to build up strong militaries and employ them aggressively to protect their interests

  • Due to productivity in industrial manufacturing, states were able to produce military weapons in greater quantities and faster

  • Germany→ possesses the most powerful military force in Europe due to rapid industrialization and massive build-up of military

  • France→ experienced several internal problems at the time and its military was not as strong therefore became fearful of Germany’s rapid growth in power

  • Great Britain→ Had a very powerful military, but its strong sense of militarism drained its national resources faster than Germany

• Alliances→Balance of power within the European continent was expressed through two major alliances

  • Triple Alliance→ Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungarian empire

  • Triple Entente→ Britain, France, and Russia

  • Alliances created in the interest of National Security on both sides or to isolate rival states

  • Mobilization Timetables for railroads were created in case a war broke out, Once it has begun it will be difficult to stop

  • Railroads will be the main vehicle to mobilize troops in war

• Imperialism→caused by the desire to project power on the world stage

  • Germany→ under the influence of National unity and military sought to enlarge its empire at the expense of other European powers

  • Imperial holdings secure + no territory to conquer = Europeans experience conflict over existing colonial holdings

• Nationalism→the glorification of one state and defining the other states as enemy

  • Nationalistic messages are embraced through schools, leading to convincing the population that others are bad and they need to be loyal to their state

  • Concing the youth that their national identities were under threat from rival states

  • Conflict needs to be dealt with using force and not compromise

• Assassination

  • Gavrilo Princip → Serbian nationalist shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austria-Hungarian empire over regional dispute

    • Causing an international war over something little

    • The assassination was caused by nationalism

  • Timeline

    • Assassination occurs due to nationalism

    • Alliances were forced to join the fight

    • Firing the process of mobilization

    • WWI begins

7.3 Heimler notes

How the war was fought

• World War I was the first Total War

• Total War→ A war that requires the mobilization of a country's entire population, both military and civilian, to fight

  • Everyone including civilians and soldiers was required to contribute to the war efforts

  • Civilians considered viable targets for military efforts

• Propaganda→ a motivation for everyone to make sacrifices and join war efforts, overall used to boost morale and nationalism

  • Propaganda campaigns demonized enemies and exaggerated atrocities enemies committed

  • Produced in forms of Art and various media including newspapers, posters, and pamphlets

  • Utilized intensive nationalism which was one of the causes of WWI

  • People began to view the world as a collection of enemy rivals, and their national identities were most important to them

• Total War Strategies

  • Schlieffen plan

  • New military technologies made WWI the deadliest war in human history

    • Machine guns, chemical gas, and tanks

  • Trench Warfare→each side digs miles of trenches on opposite sides and hunkered down for protection

    • not a new strategy but done in an excessive amount

    • led to years of stalemates where casualties mounted but neither side made progress

  • Indian Infantry→ Using colonial troops to fight your war

    • Porters in war whose job was to carry military equipment to various locations

    • Colonies fought in hopes of gaining independence which did not occur

End of War

• Lasted for four years and caused many casualties and destruction

• The turning point was the US joining the fight with Britain and France

• The US originally wanted to remain neutral but Germany sank their ships and tried to incite Mexico to start a war with US dragging them into WWI

• Central powers lose and Allied powers win

• Paris Peace Conference of 1915 occurs

  • Treaty of Versailles→ Marked peace and end of war + punished Germany which caused WWII

7.4 Heimler notes

The economic crisis

• German Hyperinflation

  • The Treaty of Versailles required them to pay other European powers to make up for all the money lost during the war which they could not afford

  • Germany is now in debt leading to the printing of more money

  • Germany can pay off debt to Britain and France, then they can pay their debt to the USA

  • Soviets weren´t paying back their war debts + had a communist revolution which decided that old debt didn't belong to the new Bolshevik government

  • Colonial Governments suffered because they had come to depend on the economies of their parent countries

• Germany borrows money from the US leading to rapid economic recovery

Soviet Union

• Russian Revolution of 1917 allowed Russia to exit WWI

• Vladimir Lenin→ got the communist government involved and instituted the New economic policy

  • introduced some limited free market principles

  • biggest institutions remained under state control

  • economic policies died with him

• Joseph Stalin→ wanted the Soviet Union to industrialize quickly

  • Five Year Plan→ aimed to multiply Soviet industrial capacity by five years

    • Accomplished through a strong-armed state bent on brutality

  • Collectivization of Agriculture→ merging small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state

    • used to supply the rapidly growing industrial centers

    • Kulaks resisted collectivization leading to the arrest of 8 million executed or sent to hard labor camps

    • Peasant farmers were left who were not as skilled and did not match production quotas

  • Famine areas→harvest were half of what they had been before

  • Ukraine productions were all exported to feed workers and not other civilians

    • Millions starved to death as a result

  • Holodomor→ death by hunger

The Great Depression

• Took place within the US after the stock market had crashed

• The US's inability to continue funding European powers led to the Great Depression becoming a Global Crisis

• Franklin D. Roosevelt

  • New Deal

    • The government put people to work on infrastructure projects

    • Introduced a government-sponsored retirement program

    • Created government medical insurance for the elderly and children

WWII eventually solved all of the US´s economic issues

7.5 Heimler Notes

Colonies

• European powers and Japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in some cases, states gained colonial territory as a result of the war

• New states emerged after the war

• The Republic of Turkey→ Leader is Ataturk

• In many places colonial territory was tossed from one imperial power to another

The Mandate System in the Middle East

• Paris Peace Conference that ended WWI aimed to dismantle the Ottoman and German empires and divided the colonial powers among themselves

• Woodrow Wilson→commited the ultimate colonial imperial foul

  • US president who kept insisting during peace negotiations that self-determination ought to be the guiding principle of a post-war

    • States should have the right to govern themselves

• Mandate system→Middle Eastern territories would become mandates administrated by the League of Nations

  • Three-tiered structure to classify these territorial holdings

    • Class C Mandates

      • Smallest population and least developed

      • Treated as colonies

      • Several islands in the Pacific

    • Class B Mandates

      • Larger populations but still underdeveloped

      • Most of Germany´s colonies in Africa

    • Class A Mandates

      • Large populations and sufficiently developed

      • Suitable for independence and self-rule

  • Britain occupies Iraq and Palestine

  • France occupies Syria and Lebanon

  • This enraged the colonies and led to anti-colonial resistance

Japan´s Expansion

• Only non western state make themselves equal to Western power

• Invaded Manchuria to expand its Empire and gain access to resources

  • Violation of rules established by the League of Nations

  • League could not enforce its rules and Japan quit it to continue their quest

  • Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity sphere

Anti-Imperial resistance

• Colonial Resistance

  • Indian National Congress

    • Formed before the war in the 19th century

    • formally petitioning the British government for greater degrees of self-rule in India

    • British domination continued even after the many Indians fought for Britain during WWI

    • Mohandas Ghandhi→ lead Indians in peaceful protest

  • African National Congress

    • Founded in South Africa by Western-educated lawyers and journalists

    • Dedicated to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa

    • Pan- Africanism→ aimed for the equality and unity of all black people across the world

7.6 Heimler notes

Causes of WWII

- WWI Grievances

• Italy

  • Bitter because they did not receive promised land grants in Austria and the Ottoman Empire

  • Before the war broke out Italy was allied with Germany but when the allied powers promised land grants, Itlay broke the alliance with Germany + fought against them

    • Italy was not as helpful as they thought and so they took away the land grants they previously promised

  • Mussolini becomes enraged

• Germany

  • Required to pay reparation payments ruined their economy

  • Forced demilitarization, making them vulnerable

  • War guilt clause→ Blamed Germany alone for the entire war

    • Engineered by Britain and France to humiliate Germany on the World stage

    • Enraging Hitler

-Continued Imperialism

• Japan

  • Expanded into China and Pacific which upset the League of Nations

• Italy

  • expanded on its own due to unfulfilled promises, invading Ethiopia and consolidating all its colonial holdings in the African continent

• Germany

  • expanded under Hitler by reclaiming former land that was taken from them because of the Treaty of Versailles

  • First expanding into the Rhineland which was a buffer zone between them and France + Czechoslovakia and Austria in the name of living space

  • Britain and France fail to stop Germany from expansion due to the fear of beginning another WW

  • The policy of Appeasement→Hitler can expand with no consequences

-Economic Crisis

-Fascism/Totalitarianism

• Soviet Union→ Russia is transformed into a communist state

  • Stalin worried the other Western powers because his actions proclaimed that he wasn´t satisfied for communism to remain Soviet reality but instead wanted the rest of the world to be communism

• Fascism→A political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and materialistic means to achieve its goals

  • Benito Mussolini rose to power and established a fascist state in Italy

    • Organized all of Italy to serve his vision

    • Lowered standards of living

    • Social Security and public services were state-funded

    • Delivered nationalistic speeches, glorifying Italians, and their cultures

    • Organized parades, used mass communication technologies to obtain public support and make Italy great on the World stage

• Adolf Hitler

  • The most fascist was Germany

  • He took hold of the Nazi party

  • Used mass communication technology to spread his nationalistic messages about Germany

  • Claimed that the enemy of all Germans were socialists, communists, and Jews

  • Nazi party policies improved standards of living for many Germans

  • It was precisely Hitlerś ability to put language to Germany´s humiliation and suffering that made his cure so compelling

• Hitler´s Policies

  • Cancel reparation payments

  • Remilitirize Germany

  • Territorial Expansion (Lebensraum)

  • Eliminate ¨ïmpure¨ races

    • Mainly Jews

7.7 Heimler Notes

Another Total War

• WWII was the second Total War and had a more devastating impact

• The most immediate cause of the war was Hitler´s invasion of Poland

• Like WWI alliance formed on two sides

• Axis powers → included Germany, Italy, and Japan who were Fascist

• Allied Powers→ Britain, France, Soviet Union, and US

  • Soviet Union and US joined later on

  • Soviet Union breaks former alliance with Germany due to their invasion attempt

  • Pearl Harbor bombing leads to the US joining the fight for the opposite side

Mobilization

• WWII Propaganda

  • Used to provoke nationalism in its people

  • used to demonize their enemies

  • Used to Sow Fear

    • Assemble massive armies

    • Keen civilians sacrificed on the home front

• Ideologies of WWII

  • Fascism

    • Glorification of the state

    • Use of Militaristic means

    • Organized politically and economically

    • Serves the interest of the state and not the people

    • Hitler made use of all the people he conquered to serve the war effort and established labor camps for Jews and slavs

  • Communism

    • Soviet Economy

    • Rapid Industrialization through Five Year Plans

    • Brutal and unflinching demands

  • Democracy

    • Winston Churchill→ Britain's new prime minister

      • Did not put up with Hitler’s expansion efforts

      • Relied on the persuasion of his people

    • Propaganda dubbed it a ¨people´s war¨

    • The government promised the expansion of welfare

• US

  • After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the US forced Japanese--Americans into internment camps because the government feared that they were operatives of the enemy

• Germany

  • Jews and other undesirables were forced into ghettos as a result of the Nur Burgh laws

  • Later moved to concentration camps and were forced into hard labor or killed

Strategies and Technologies

• Blitzkrig→ A shock and awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed which was used by Germany

  • Combined Air Assault from planes and quick infantry movements from tanks

• Firebombing→small clusters of explosive devices that were meant to fall in urban areas and did damage by starting fires

• Atomic Bomb→ Destabilizing particles on the atomic level + could destroy an entire city

  • Developed by the US

  • Dropped on Japan resulting in their surrender and the end of the war in the Pacific

In the end, the Allied powers prevailed both in Europe and the Pacific

7.8 Heimler Notes

Causes of Mass Atrocities

• Two World Wars

  • About 120 million deaths

  • 50% being civilians

• New Technologies

  • Aerial Warfare→ Firbombing + Atomic Bomb

• The rise of extremist political Ideologies aiming to destroy entire populations on account of race or ethnicity

Major Atrocities

• Armenian Genocide→Ottoman Empire began a program revisioning their state as primarily Turkic under the influence of the Young Turks which cast their suspicion upon Christian Armenians

  • Mass extermination and slaughter

  • Relocation of Armenians

• The Holocaust→The desire to create a pure race and therefore exterminate those who tarnished that purity

  • Including ROMA, Homosexuals, the disabled, political enemies, many others

  • The Jewish population has the worst

  • Nuremberg law→Stripped the rights of Jews and forced them into ghettos + concentration camps

    • Auschwitz was the name of the camps they were placed into

    • Killed through gas chambers

• The Cambodian Genocide→Kema Rouge takes control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot

  • Began to change Cambodia into an Agrarian state and completely erase all Western influence

    • Emptied cities forced people to work in labor camps and targeted the education population who were influenced by Westernized ideals

    • Was not as racially motivated but caused the death of a quarter of Cambodia´s population

UNIT 8

8.1 Heimler Notes

Two Superpowers arise

• Cold War→ A state of hostility that exists between two states characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare

  • Between the Soviet Union and the US

  • Allied powers were affected economically due to the WWII

  • Two Global Powers emerged as a result→ The United states and the Soviet Union

• Economic and technological advantages

  • The reason why US and USSR emerged as global powers

Economic advantages

• United States

  • WWII affected the economy as more women were involved in the work force

  • The US avoids geographical and economic damage outside of Pearl Harbor due to its distant geographical location

  • Marshall Plan→sent money in aid for economic recovery in war-torn nations which lead to those nations experiencing a revival

  • Balance of power shifts to the USA

• Soviet Union

  • Economy was heavily directed by the state

  • Command economy draws skepticism from free market minded folks+ in years leading up to WWII, the soviet economy grew rapidly, growth led to suffering and death of Soviet citizens

  • Soviet Economy

    • Natural Resources

      • Enormous territory

    • Large population

    • Investment before WWII

      • infrastructure was already in place

Technological Advances

• US develops most advanced + devastating weapon→ Atomic Bomb

  • Deployed two on Japan ending war in the Pacific Theatre

  • The US was high on the scale of most advanced military tech

• The Soviet Union refuses to be intimidated and begins to advance their own weapon art and tech

• Arms Race→ A lot of money was invested into developing bombs

  • Nuclear and Hydrogen bombs

Decolonization

• WWs create the stage for this

  • Colonies had to fight for the imperial parents against their will in hopes that their sacrifice would be honored with indépendance

• Woodrow Wilson→ Insisted on self-determination for all nations

  • vetoed and Mandate system was enacted instead

• Mandate system→ Divided the colonies of world into a hierarchical system with varying degrees of self-rule based upon their ability to sustain themselves

  • Did not follow through leading to the Colonies becoming infuriated

• WWII

  • Massive anti-imperial movements broke out due to no effort being made toward indépendance after fighting for others outside the colony

  • Due to the WWs draining European powers from resources and military, the rebellions were more successful

UNIT 8.2

The Cold War

• The United Nations

  • Allies wanted to create a new organization to maintain peace.

  • The League of Nations failed because it lacked support from power nations like the U.S. and was unable to act quickly on emerging conflicts.

  • United Nations: International organization established in 1945, promoting world peace and cooperation.

• Economic and Political Rivalry

  • Iron Curtain: Metaphor describing political split between Eastern and Western Europe, used by Winston Churchill in 1946.

  • In Capitalist Countries, economic assets are owned privately and people have the right to act in their own interest.

  • In Communist Countries, economic assets are owned by the government, with equality and fairness being emphasized.

  • The United States elected leaders through free voting, with political parties competing and independent press providing information.

  • The Soviet Union’s elections were not important as a single party dominated politics, with the press being operated by the government.

  • The Soviets were criticized for the lack of human rights and freedoms given to civilians.

  • The U.S. was criticized for wealth gaps and discrimination of minorities and women.

• International Affairs

  • Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union were forced to develop 5 year economic plans focusing on industry and collective agriculture, rather than consumer products. Non-communist political parties were outlawed to enforce this.

  • Satellite Countries: small states dependent on stronger states economically or politically.

    • These countries were forced to import only Soviet goods and export only to them

  • World Revolution: belief that organized workers would overthrow capitalist governments.

  • As the Soviets viewed capitalism as a threat to their power, they supported uprisings prior to World War II.

  • Containment Policy: U.S. diplomat George Keenan advocated for limited the spread of communism.

    • Other politicians argued they should overthrow new communist governments.

  • Truman Doctrine: Statement from U.S. President Harry Truman that they would go to extreme measures to stop the spread of communism, especially in Greece and Turkey.

    • Soviet Union attempted to put military bases in Turkey to control.

    • In Greece, communist parties were close to gaining control of the government.

  • Marshall Plan: U.S. 12 billion dollar aid to all of Europe, designed to prevent communist revolutions from occurring in the economically unstable continent.

    • The plan worked as it majorly boosted European economies.

  • Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: As the Soviets and their sattelite countries declined U.S. aid, they made an organization to develop trade and credit agreements within the region.

• Space and Arms Race

  • Space Race: Started by the Soviet’s satellite in 1957, them and the U.S. competed with aerospace developments and the mission to land first human on the moon.

  • Mutual Assured Destruction: The U.S. and Soviet Union developed such powerful nuclear weapons at similar pace that both knew a war would cause total destruction.

• Non-Aligned Movement

  • Bandung Conference: New African and Asian countries met in 1955, where they passed resolutions to condemn communism and to stay independent from the two superpowers.

  • Non-Aligned Movement: Third world countries attempt to stay apart from Cold War rivalry.

    • Member states became closely allied with either the U.S. or the Soviet Union.

    • War broke out between Ethiopia (supported by the Soviets) and Somalia (supported by the U.S.)

8.3 NOTES

Effects of the Cold War

• German Separation

  • Allies divided Berlin into 4 zones (for each Allied Country), with Britain, France, and the U.S. combining their zones into one free democratic city.

  • Berlin Blockade: June 1948 - May 1959, The Soviets set up a blockade in the Western Allied Berlin zones, to prevent supplies from moving into them.

  • Berlin Airlift: Allies flew supplies into their Berlin zones until the Soviets lifted the blockade.

  • After the blockade, Germany split into the Federal Republic of Germany (Western) and the German Democratic Republic (Eastern).

  • East Germans fled to Western Germany for the democratic lifestyle, which hurt the communist economy and reputation.

  • Berlin Wall: Wall made by the German Democratic republic to prevent it's population from escaping from 1961-1989.

• New Alliances

  • Soviet Union was backed up to the newly communist governments of Eastern Europe.

  • North Atlantic Treaty Organization: In April 1949, Western nations signed a treaty pledging mutual support and cooperation against conflicts and wars.

  • Warsaw Pact: Alliance formed by the communist bloc, combining their armed forces and led by Moscow, Soviet Union capital.

    • Yugoslavia never joined and Albania left in 1968.

  • Other Organizations formed to stop spread of communism in other regions.

    • Southeast Asia Treaty Organization: Formed by Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States to stop spread of communism in Southeast Asia

    • Central Treaty Organization: Anti-Soviet treaty organization formed by Iran, Great Britain, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkey to stop spread of Communism in the middle east.

• Proxy Wars

  • Wars during the cold war were called proxy wars as the armies of smaller countries were stand-ins (proxies) for the U.S.S.R. and the U.S, yet still resulted in millions of deaths.

  • After WWII, the Allies split the Korean Peninsula into North (Soviet occupied) and South (U.S. occupied)

  • The Korean War begun when North Korea attempted to invade South Korea and reunite the region under a communist government.

    • The UN voted to defend South Korea with the U.S. providing most troops.

    • The Soviet Union sent money and weapons to North Korea.

    • As the UN forced toward’s North Korea’s border with China, China sent troops to fight against them as they feared the United States would invade them.

    • The war ended in a stalemate with about 4 million deaths and Korea still divided.

  • Vietnam War: Communist North Vietnam launched an invasion on South Vietnam.

    • As the war went on, the U.S. increased millitary support in South Vietnam as they feared a communist takeover in Vietnam would cause the rest of the region would become communist too (Domino Theory).

    • In March 1973, U.S. took all troops out of Vietnam, and 2 years later North Vietnam won.

  • Communist revolutionaries took over Cuba in 1959 and soon set up a government and economy similar to the Soviet Union.

  • The U.S. blocked off all economic and diplomatic ties with Cuba as the country was forming an Alliance with the U.S.S.R.

  • Bay of Pigs: John F. Kennedy aided Cuban exile’s invasion which was a total failure and solidified a Cuban-Soviet alliance.

  • Cuban Missile Crisis: Series of tensions threatening nuclear war as the U.S. placed nukes in Turkey while the Soviets placed tired to place some in Cuba but were stopped. Eventually they both withdrew theirs.

    • Hot Line (Cold War): direct telegraph link between the U.S. and Soviet leaders offices to avoid sudden crisis.

  • Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975, but the borders set by Portugal concealed rival ethnic groups into one country. Each group fought for power and control of the diamond mines.

    • U.S.S.R. and Cuba supported the Mbundu tribe

    • United States supported the Bankongo tribe

    • South Africa supported the Ovimbundu tribe

    • Ended with a cease-fire in 2002

  • Contra War: Period of violence in Nicaragua between the Sandinista (socialists) and the Contra (conservative and U.S. supported).

• Anti-Nuclear Weaponry

  • Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Signed by the U.S. and Soviet Union, along with over 100 other states, to put an end to nuke testing (except underground) due to environmental dangers.

  • Nuclear Proliferation Treaty: Called on nuclear power nations to prevent spread of the technology to non-nuclear countries.

  • Japanese Anti-Nuclear Movement: Japanese petitioned to ending U.S. nuclear missile testing in the pacific.

8.4 Unit Notes

Spread of Communism after 1900

• Land Reform: redistribution or change of laws/regulations surrounding land

Communism in China

• In 1927 Chinese nationalists and communists were fighting over control of the country, but the two agreed to both fight Japan when they invaded China.

• Once WWII was over, the Chinese Civil War continued with the communists gaining popular support as they implemented nationalist policies like land reforms, hospital and educational improvement, and stronger justice system.

  • Peasants saw the communists as more nationalist and less corrupt.

• Mao Zedong: Leader of the Chinese Communists and founded the People’s Republic of China.

• China started to reform the economy into a industry heavy one like the Soviets.

• Great Leap Forward: Policy promoting many land reforms in China.

  • Communes: large agricultural communities owned by the state, where peasants were moved into. Protesters were killed or sent to reeducation camps.

  • Reeducation: Places of brainwashing, torture, hard labor, and punishment for those not loyal to the Chinese Communist Party.

• Mao continued to export grain to Africa and Cuba to create strong economic image, while about 20 million Chinese died from starvation.

• Cultural Revolution: Mao Zedong’s effort to strengthen China’s commitment to communism and solidify his power.

• Red Guards: Chinese revolutionary students, sent by Mao to bring people to reeducation camps.

• Although both communist, China and the Soviet Union competed for influence around the world like in Albania, and the two had border disputes.

Turmoil in Iran

• Britain and Russia fought for control over Iran and competition grew when oil was discovered early 20th century.

• During WWII Russia and Britain invaded Iran to prevent them from helping the Nazis.

  • Muhammad Reza Pahlavi was put in power by the Allies, and in 1951 Iranian nationalists kicked him out the country as they saw him as a western puppet.

  • Iran put in Mohammad Mosaddegh, vowing to nationalize oil production.

  • U.S. and Great Britain took back control and the shah ran a ruthless authoritarian regime.

• White Revolution: Period Iranian progressive reforms.

  • Government bought land from landlords and resold to peasants at a cheaper price.

  • Peasants who were not helped and landlords forced to sell opposed the land reforms.

• In 1979, The Iranian Revolution overthrew the shah and emerged was a new government that complied with the Islamic law (shariah).

• Theocracy: a form of government where religion is supreme authority.

Latin America Land Reforms

• In Venezuela, the government redistributed large land-owner’s land in addition to some state-owned land, in total ~5 million acres.

  • Citizen support was split as those who benefited were happy, but landowners were not.

• In Guatemala, Jacob Arbenz attempted land reforms. The US Fruit Company was threatened and forced the US government to overthrow Arbenz.

Asian and African Land Reforms

• Independent and Communist Vietnam redistributed land to peasants, making them supportive, yet with violent strategies.

• In South Vietnam, the government was slow on land reform, making them unpopular with the people.

• Haile Selassie aligned Ethipoia with western powers, and prospered from coffee trade.

  • As he was unable to redistribute land, citizens saw him as pawn of U.S. imperialism.

• A new socialist government took control of Ethiopia led by Mengitsu Haile Mariam, and received help from the Soviet Union, but he was very unsuccessful and failed by 1991.

• After WWII, India became independent and partitioned into Pakistan (Muslim) and India (Hindu) in 1947.

• In Kerala, progressive land reforms and wage fixes went through, but were undone by the Indian Central Government, despite being popular.

8.5 NOTES

Decolonization after 1900

Autonomy movements of India and Pakistan

• Hindu and Muslims groups united their desire for independence from Britain and were successful, led by Gandhi.

• Muslim League: Supporters for a separate nation for the Muslims of India (Pakistan).

• Protesters of Gandhi’s approach for unity put differences aside during WWII, but continued after.

• Britain was ready to negotiate South Asian independence after being weakened from WWII, economic pressures, and the Royal Indian Navy Revolt of 1946.

• India and Pakistan both claimed independence in 1947.

Ghana and Algeria

• With the aid of the United Nations, the independent Gold Cost combined with the former British Togoland to form the first Sub-Saharan independent country, Ghana (1957).

• Pan-Africanism: idea that Africans have common interests and should be unified.

• Kwame Nkrumah: First President of Ghana.

  • Nkrumah constructed national narratives about glory for Ghana, to increase Ghanaian nationalism.

  • When voters agree to a One Party State due to economic problems, Nkrumah claimed dictatorial powers.

  • Organization of African Unity: Founded by Nkrumah, alliance of independent African nations with the goal of cooperation between new African governments.

  • In 1966 Ghana was overthrown by a military coup and a President did not return till 2000.

• Prior to independence for Algeria, they faced violance rising from economic, political, and social crisis protests and the French government’s enforced response.

• The Algerian War for Independence was fought between Algerians who wanted independence and French settlers who believed the colony was part of France at that point.

  • National Liberation Front (FLN): Radical nationalist movement in Algeria.

  • French Communist Party sided with Algeria, causing violence in the streets of France.

  • FLN maintained a socialist authoritarian rule that didn’t tolerate dissent (one party rule).

• Algerian Civil War: Starting in 1991, violent conflict begun with Islamic rebel groups against the Algerian FLN government.

• Ghana promoted elected governments while Algeria consisted of authoritarian power and banning elections, which brought harsh fighting.

French West Africa Independence

• During the indirect rule, France invested infrastructure and agriculture into West Africa, returning trade revenue.

• By 1959, many West African French colonies negotiated independence.

Vietnam Division

• After and before WWII, France occupied Southern Vietnam.

• Ho Chi Minh: communist leader of North Vietnam.

• Vietnamese War of Independence: Northern Vietnam forces and France fought over control of South Vietnam, ending with a peace treaty splitting North and South Vietnam as independent countries.

• Fearing a communist take over of the Vietnams, the US and South Vietnamese governments fought the Northern Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.

  • North Vietnam took over after 1975, and spread some communist rule to Laos and Cambodia.

  • Made economic reforms.

Egypt

• Egypt became a nominally independent kingdom in 1922 with some British authority until the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty gave Egypt more power.

• In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian King and established the Republic of Egypt.

  • Nasser supported Pan-Arabism, and his policies combined Islam and socialism.

  • Begun to nationalize businesses, including an attempt on the Suez Canal.

• Suez Crisis: When Nasser of Egypt tried to nationalize the Suez Canal, owned by Britain and France, leading to Israel invading Egypt on behalf of Britain and France.

  • The U.S. and Soviet Union opposed the action and interfered, leading to peaceful compromise.

Nigeria´s Independence and Civil War

• Biafran Civil War: After Nigeria gained independence from Britain, the Igbos, a Christian tribe in oil rich region, declared independence due to Islamic attacks on them, but failed.

• Nigerian government tried to prevent tribalism from breaking up the country, by established states between ethnic/religious lines

• Conflicts over Nigerian government exploitation of the oil occurred with destructive protests.

Quebec Silent Revolution

• Quiet Revolution: The peaceful change of government in Quebec.

  • Divide between French nationalist Quebec people and British.

  • Canada stayed together despite efforts for Quebec independence.

8.6 Unit Notes

Newly independent State

Israel Founded

• First proposal of creation of Jewish state at the First Zionist Congress.

• The Balfour Declaration favored the establishment of the Jewish state in Palestine despite Muslim occupation.

• As Britain gained mandate of former Ottoman lands, Zionists began to immigrate from Europe and some of the Middle east to Palestine, angering Arabs in Palestine losing their way of life.

• The United Nations responded to Arab opposition by dividing the newly Jewish part of Palestine into Israel.

• War broke out quickly between Israel supported by the United States, and Palestine supported by Arab countries. Arab forces attempted to invade Israel but failed and 400,000 Palestinians became refugees.

  • Six-Day War of 1967: Israel conquered land from Egypt, West Bank, Jordan, and Syria at once.

  • Yom Kippur War of 1973: Israel repelled a secret invasion from Egypt and Syria.

• Camp David Accords: Peace treaty from U.S. President Jimmy Carter, accepted between Egypt and Israel but rejected by Palestine and supporting Arab state.

• Palestinian Liberation Organization: Formed by Arab states wanting return of Israel occupied lands and creation of independent State of Palestine.

• During 21st century, Palestine split into the Fatah and the Hamas, while Israel implemented harsh polcies on them and took over more of their considered land. Arabs developed hatred towards Israel and the U.S. and instability.

Cambodian War and Independence

• Cambodia pressured France to grant it’s independence in 1953.

• Getting drawn into the Vietnam War, a communist organization called Khmer Rogue overthrew Cambodia’’s right-wing government.

• The Khmer Rogue instituted a ruthless cultural revolution like China did, killing a quarter of the population.

• After the Vietnam War, Vietnam helped Cambodia regain stability, and withdrew in 1989.

• The United Nations monitored Cambodia’s free elections, and the country developed a free democratic government with a market-like economy.

India and Pakistan Division

• During the partition, many Hindus and Sikhs left Pakistan to India, and many Muslims left India for Pakistan, resulting in 500,000 - 1 million deaths.

• Despite similar democratic governments, distrust between the two countries grew.

• Kashmir Conflict: Both India and Pakistan claimed the mountain region of Kashmir on their borders, leading to armed conflict and split control with China gaining ~20%.

Women's Power in South Asia

• In both India and Pakistan, women had voting rights.

• Sirimavo Bandaranaike: World’s first female prime minister after she was voted on in Ceylon/Sri Lanka, 1960.

  • After being voted out and then back on, she implemented many radical reforms, but the economy was slow and she lost power once again in 1977

• After India’s first prime minister died, his daughter, Indira Gandhi, took over and strengthened India’s economy.

  • Before being assassinated in 1984, Indira overcame a national emergency in 1975 from poverty, and grew the economy greatly as well as reforming corrupt laws.

• Benazir Bhutto: First elected female leader in a Muslim state, as prime minister of Pakistan from 1988-1990 she failed to help the economy and was later exiled(1999), then assassinated (2007)

Tanzania Modernization

• United Republic of Tanzania established independence from the British in 1961.

• Julius Nyerere: Served as first president of Tanzania, instituted socials ideas and campaigns for development in education and farming.

  • Could not pull country out of economic hardship and poverty, leading to his resignation.

Emigration

• Large amounts of refugees from Southeast Asia emigrated to Britain after WWII.

• Metropole: Large city of a former colonial ruler.

• Vietnamese emigrated to France.

• Fillipinos emigrated to the United States.

• Migrants found jobs in the medical department, railroads and airports, keeping economic and cultural ties strong.

8.7 NOTES

Global resistance to Established power structures

Nonviolent Resistance

• In India, Mohandas Gandhi led marches, boycotts, and fasts leading to India’s independence from Britain in 1947.

• Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the leading activists in the U.S. civil rights movement.

  • Brown v Board of Education: Court decision to ban racial segregation of schools in the U.S.

  • Public transit boycotts and mass marches.

• Socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela, led resistances to apartheid in South Africa with nonviolent protests.

Challanges to Soviet Power in Eastern Power

• As Polish workers demonstrated against Soviet domination, Wladyslaw Gomulka pursued independent policies as secretary of the Polish communist party, while being loyal to the USSR.

• In Hungary, protesters convinced leader Imre Nagy to end Soviet control, declare neutrality during cold war by leaving the Warsaw Pact, and allowing free elections.

  • Soviet Union responded by successfully invading Hungary, generating many refugees.

• In Czechoslovakia, secretary Alexander Dubcek increased freedoms for citizens and made the political system more democratic. However, Soviets and their allies crushed the movement.

  • Brezhnev Doctrine: Responding to the independence in Czechoslovakia, a official Soviet document stated that the Union and their allies would intervene in members threatening socialist growth.

Year of Revolt

• In 1968, many key revolts occurred around the world.

• In Yugoslavia, students marched against the authoritarian government.

• In Poland and Ireland, there were religious protests.

• Brazil experienced movements for worker and education reforms.

• In Japan, students protest university and financial policies, and Japanese support for the US in Vietnam.

• In France there were student protests for reforms in education, civil rights, and worker rights which were responded by police brutality. 10 million French workers went of strike bringing new elections.

• In addition to protests for civil rights in the United States, there were protests against the Vietnam War, such as the one at Kent State University, 1970.

Age of Terrorism

• Individuals unaffiliated with governments committed terrorist acts around the world.

• Northern Irish protested against the UK keeping them as not independent.

  • Most of Ireland Roman Catholics but Northern Ireland dominated by Protestants, leading to discrimination towards the Catholics. They wanted to become part of Ireland, not UK.

  • Catholics fought as the Irish Republican Army, they committed acts of terrorism in British cities. Protestants fought as the Ulster Defense Association.

  • Conflict went on from 1969-1994 with a 3,500 deaths.

• The Basque Separatist Movement wanted independence for the Basque region of Spain, they killed over 820 people until they decided to settle the issue politically.

• The Shining Path Organization wanted to overthrow Peru’s government and replace it with a communist one like Mao Zedong’s and the Khmer Rouge.

  • Led by Abimael Guzman, the Shining Path killed over 37,000 in 20 years of terrorism until the leaders admitted defeat and started negotiations.

• Small groups like the Boko Haram, Al-Shabaab, the Levant (ISIL), and the Taliban used a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam to justify terrorism, mostly on Muslims.

  • Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden attacked many different countries including the U.S. on September 11th, 2001, where over 3,000 people died in crashed planes. The U.S. and allies weakened Al-Qaeda and took bin Laden down in 2011.

• The United States faced terrorism from groups associated with white-nationalism and discrimination against the minorities in the country.

Response of Militarized States

• Dictator Francisco Franco of Spain executed and imprisoned political dissenters until his death in 1975 led Spain towards a democratic government.

• The “Butcher of Uganda”, Idi Amin, was a millitary dictator of Uganda and through his self-declared leadership for life he constructed policies worsening ethnic tensions, denying human rights, and increased refugees.

  • Responsible for 500,000 deaths among targeted ethnic groups and expelled 60,000 Asians.

  • Ugandan nationalists and Tanzanian troops took Amin down when he tried to invade Tanzania.

Military Industry Complex

• As countries lacked facilities for weapon production, arms trade spread rapidly during this time of many conflicts.

• The Military Industry Complex was growing so powerful in America that it threatened the country’s democracy.

8.8 NOTES

End of the Cold War

Final Decades

• Agreements to limit nuclear weapons important to end of Cold War

• Detente: Period of relaxation of strained relations between the Soviet Union and the US.

• Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): Treaty designed to freeze number of intercontinental ballistic missiles the two rival countries could keep.

• Detente was helpful to the Soviet Union because:

  • Soviet Union was no longer growing, thus in a economic crisis.

  • Soviet bloc countries were protesting for freedom from Soviet control.

  • Soviet Union had conflicts over border with China, both communist countries.

• The United States was struggling with the negative press from the Vietnam War and the economy.

• The US sent grain to the drought struggling Soviet Union, helping them and American farmers.

• Soviet-Afghan War: Soviets invaded Afghanistan trying to support their communist government against Muslim rebels. Despite many refugees and casualties, the Soviets were unsuccessful and withdrew in 1989, while Afghanistan remained in a civil war and the Soviets were weakened.

• President Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) referred to the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and sent support to the Afghans, increasing Cold War tensions.

• Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): United States created a missile defense program that would supposedly destroy any Soviet missiles fired towards them.

  • As Soviets had no system to respond with, they objected this plan.

• With tensions increasing in the 1980s, other nations believed they had to choose a side

• Progressive communist leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power (Soviet Union) in 1985.

  • Perestroika: attempts to restructure the Soviet economy allowing elements of free enterprise.

  • Glasnost: policy of opening up Soviet society and granting greater freedoms.

• Gorbachev and Reagan liked each other in their meetings and created a working relationship.

• The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF): 1987 treaty agreeing on restricting intermediate-range nuclear weapons. Heavily reduced risk of nuclear war.

• With Cold War pressures cooling, Gorbachev started to implement his policies.

Fall of the Soviet Union

• Gorbachev’s program ended economic support for Soviet satellite countries, and ultimately was responsible for the fall of the Soviet Union.

• Once those countries had a taste of freedom, and started democratic reform movements including the fall of the Berlin Wall and unification of Germany.

  • Soviet republics revolted and declared independence.

  • Warsaw Pact dissolved.

  • Russia emerged as the strongest of the new republics.

• With the Cold War over and the Soviet Union dissolved, trade and the world was ore interconnected than ever before.

  • Interconnections of the world led to wealth for some but struggles for others.

  • World left to deal with genocides, terrorism, environmental degradation, ethnic conflicts, new democracies, economic inequality, and global epidemics.

UNIT 9

9.1 Unit Notes

Advances in Technology and exchange

Communication and transportation

• The radio brought news and culture to a wide range of people.

• Air travel and shipping containers promoted the widespread movement of goods and people.

• Social media helped human right protests in the US and in the Arab Spring movement, share their issues with the world.

Green Revolution

• The Green Revolution was a series of agricultural innovations in the mid 20th century, which dramatically increased global food production.

• Scientists created new methods for grain production that they believed would solve world hunger.

  • Crossbreeding: breeding two varieties of a plant to create a hybrid.

• Genetic Engineering: manipulating a cell or organism to its basic characteristics.

• Slash and Burn: Used by countries such as Brazil, forests were burned down and plowed for agricultural land.

• Small farmers struggled as they couldn’t afford pesticides/fertilizers like large landowner, forcing them to sell their land to those owners, resulting in unequal land distribution.

• Chemicals used by farmers damaged the environment.

• The revolution brought mechanization to the farming industry, decreasing the amount of jobs.

Energy Technologies

• As technologies developed, petroleum and natural gas fueled industrial output and productivity.

• Nuclear research for the weapons also led to it being a source of energy for homes. But because of nuclear power-plant accidents, the building of them decreased starting in the 1980s.

• The expansion of fossil fuels has led to serious environmental damage and climate change.

• Renewable energy production has been developed to fight fossil fuels, but only make up a small portion of the world energy source.

Medical Innovations

• Penicillin became the world’s first antibiotic in 1928.

• Antibiotic: A type of medication that is used to treat bacterial infections. It works by either killing the bacteria or preventing them from multiplying.

  • WWII antibiotics saved many soldiers from minor infections.

  • As they spread to civilian use, many feared the overuse of them would lead to drug-resistant diseases.

• Birth Control Pills were used first in 1960, they were reliable and accessible.

  • Fertility Rates lowered as a result.

  • Gender roles and sexual practices changed.

• Vaccines begun to be used for preventing diseases, preventing many deaths but not as many as they could’ve due to distribution issues.

9.2 NOTES

Disease in Poverty

• Despite cures, diseases can sick around in areas with poor living conditions and lack of access to health care.

• Malaria is a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes in tropical areas, killed over 600,000 people each year early 21st century.

  • Spread quickly through poor areas in Africa where mosquito protection wasn’t accessible.

  • Doctors Without Borders treated ~1.7 million annually in South Saharan Africa. They implemented many strategies to prevent the spread but a vaccine wasn’t approved until October 2021.

• Tuberculosis is an airborne infection, spreading through coughing or sneezing, that damages the lungs and is deadly.

  • Cure in 1946 was developed using antibiotics and rest, these vaccines were distributed to countries many cases.

  • Strain resistant to the usual vaccine appeared and spread quickly through prisons, WHO began a world wide campaign against it in the 2010s.

• Cholera is a bacterial disease that spreads through contaminated water that kills 95,000 people per year.

  • People in poorly sanitized areas are very vulnerable as vaccines do not reduce the need for prevention. A severe infection can kill you within hours.

• Polio is a disease caused by water contaminated by a virus in fecal matter, can cause paralysis or death.

  • Jonas Salk announced a injection vaccine to fight the disease in 1955, and Albert Sabin created an oral one 6 years later.

  • Despite polio being eliminated in most countries after campaigns from the UN and other organizations, it still exists in places like Afghanistan and Pakistan where there is war and political unrest, making it hard to distribute vaccines.

Epidemics

• In WWI, more soldiers died from disease than battle, calling the need for medical innovations.

• The flu became widespread in America and was spread to the rest of the world through soldiers.

• HIV/AIDS is a disease that weakens the immune system so that it can be defeated by any disease.

  • Spread through exchange of bodily fluids, caused panic between 1981-2014.

  • Antiretroviral Drugs were created in the mid 1990s to treat the virus. However, they are very expensive meaning they aren’t accessible in poorer areas that don’t provide them for free.

• Discovered in 1976 Congo, Ebola is a disease caused by a virus spreading from African fruit bats to humans and other primates.

  • Causes internal bleeding, organ failure, and likely death.

  • 2014 outbreak in West Africa caused panic but was contained by public health efforts, led by the WHO.

Chronic Diseases

• As people lived longer, they started to develop chronic diseases like heart disease.

  • Christiaan Barnard preformed first heart transplant in 1967, a major innovation.

  • Robert Jarvik designed the first artificial heart as a temporary treatment.

• Alzheimer’s Disease is an extreme form of dementia where patients can eventually remember nothing, not even bodily functions, leading to death. There are treatments but no cure.

International Terrorism and War

• After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international security - organizations like NATO, United Nations, International Criminal Court in The Hague (prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders) to provide international aid to those in need

• War in the Gulf

  • Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves so they invaded Kuwait in 1990 under leadership of Saddam Hussein

  • United Nations sent forces to drive Iraqis out in early 1991 - now called Persian Gulf War

  • UN liberated Kuwait and put severe limitations on Iraq’s military and economic activity (although Hussein remained in power for another 10 years)

  • In 2003, coalition of countries, mostly US and Britain invaded Iraq to oust Hussein - Hussein was captured in December 2003 and a democratic government was formed in 2005

  • Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds groups, a Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani and a Shia minister, Nouri ai-Maliki were elected, but they still have faced a number of challenges

• Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden

  • In early 1980s, Soviets sent troops to Afghanistan under at request of Marxist military leader Nur Muhammad Taraki

  • Afghanis opposed communism and fought back until Soviets withdrew troops - left a power void that warring factions vied to fill

  • Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14 years of fighting

  • Provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of the international terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically despised the US

    • US:

      1. Supports Israel

      2. Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia

      3. Is the primary agent of globalization believed to be infecting Islamic culture

  • On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked US by hijacking 4 US planes and flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New York, 1 into the Pentagon, and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000 people died

    • US immediately declared a war on terrorism and invaded Afghanistan - the Taliban was removed from power and Osama bin Laden was killed, but Al Qaeda still survives

  • Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur throughout Europe and the Middle East

Environmental Change

• Global integration has caused global environmental concerns

• Green revolution of 50s and 60s led to destructions of traditional landscapes, reduced species diversity, and social conflicts to produce inexpensive food

• Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human activity - outcome is uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing enough to limit their environmental damage

Global Health Crisis

• Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat them

• AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS and treatment is expensive

• Global health issues highlight global disparities as the disproportionately affect low-income individuals

Age of the Computer

• The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the Internet

• In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes

• Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought people closer together

• Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of user data, which is considered by many a breech of privacy

Timelines

Economic Systems- Timeline

1200 - 1450

• Song China’s economy became more commercialized and continued to rely on free peasant and artisan labor.

• Chinese economy flourished with technological advancements (Grand Canal expansion, textile/porcelain/steel/iron production).

• Commercial practices improved (forms of credit, caravanserai, Chinese paper money) increased the volume of trade and expanded the range of the Silk Roads and with that powerful trade cities.

  • Trade of luxury goods increased, spread by merchants

• The Mongol Empire’s vast control over Asia provided safety and stability which facilitated trade through Afro-Eurasia (Pax Mongolica).

• Indian Ocean trade volume was increased with the predicting of monsoon winds for easy travel as well as the spread of maritime technology. With trade, cities were developed.

• Transportation technology increased trade in the Trans-Saharan, cities like Timbuktu became popular trade spots.

• The Americas participated in inter-regional trade but mostly through the government.

• Europe didn’t participated much in international trade yet but desired to after the findings of Marco Polo. Instead their economies ran through feudalism and manorialism where the serfs/lower class were tied to land and worked similarly to slaves under their lords.

• Japan had a feudal system similar to Europe.

1450 - 1750

Land Based Empires

• Gunpowder Empires gained their strength by trading for military resources, mostly from China.

• Large land empires used taxing systems to generate money to support expansion.

  • Ottoman tax farming, Aztec tribute system, Mughal zamindar tax collection.

Maritime Empires

• European empires such as the Portuguese, gained knowledge of maritime technology and navigational skills allowing them to travel to trade with Africa and Asia and set up trade posts there.

  • Trade post empires later transformed into imperialist empires as they continued to colonize.

• The Indian Ocean trade network continued to flourish, now with the addition of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch merchants.

• Europeans traded Chinese luxury goods including tea, silk, and porcelain

• As European countries colonized the Americas, they created cash crop plantations operating with forced labor systems.

  • Tried to implement the Inca Mit’a system and indentured servitude but weren’t successful so they switched to chattel slavery.

• Europeans started the Atlantic Slave Trade to supply workers for their American plantations.

  • Europe traded Africa manufactured goods like textiles →Africa traded enslaved people to European colonies in America → Europe sent their materials/cash crops harvested in the American plantations to Europe (for people and manufactured goods).

• European Maritime empires followed the economic system/ideology of mercantilism (commercialization) where a it was believed there limited amount of wealth in the world and was measured by the supply of a state's gold and silver, thus should try to increase their supply.

  • Promoted that exports should be larger than imports and government economic regulation.

• The Europeans harvested silver from the Americas (mainly Spanish colonies), stood as the new global currency.

  • China had a high demand for the silver currency as they switched from paper money to coins, due to self-inflation and counterfeit bills, thus Europe was able to trade for Chinese luxury goods.

  • Eventually silver causes lots of inflation in China (price revolution).

• Join-stock companies funded these voyages of exploration and colonization (some were state funded).

• The British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company were prime examples, both funded exploration and trade in South/South East Asia.

• Peasant and artisan labor continued to produce these goods.

• Japan closed themselves off from foreign trade (isolationism) under the Tokugawa Shogunate.

• China attempted to do the same but this hurt their export heavy economy moving forward.

  • This also stopped Zheng He’s voyages which expanded their economy prior.

1750 - 1900

Industrialization

• The new industrialized economy came with the industrial revolution and continued with

  • Improved agricultural productivity →less farmers needed so more available for factories.

  • Urbanization → growth of cities and factories in them.

• The industrial revolution began in England due to many rivers and spread through Europe and the US.

• The previous cottage industry where women would produce textiles in their home transformed into the textile industry with mass producing factories.

• Western European countries abandoned mercantilism as their economic system and instead adopted free trade policies.

  • Adam Smith’s support of a Laissez-Faire system and eventually capitalism were adopted by Europe and the US.

• Capitalism did have benefits and created a new social class, the working class.

  • Increased standard of living for some, though cities were low quality.

  • Increased availability, variety, and affordability of goods.

• Large scale transnational businesses rose with the industrial economy. They operated through large scale banking and stock markets.

• In response to the challenges capitalism brought, Marxism and socialism stood as alternative economic systems. They promoted equality through sharing wealth between the working class rather than the company owners.

  • Marxism later transformed into communism, a much more aggressive ideology for equal wealth distribution with businesses being owned by the state.

• New government in Japan (Japan Empire reinstated) started the Mejji Restoration which implemented Western-like policies to promote industrialization (successful).

• In Russia, industrialization increased with steel and railroad manufacturing.

Imperialism

• The resources needed for industrialization were a big causes for imperialism. European countries were trying to expand their industrial economies and markets $$$.

• Economic imperialism was a form of imperialism in which businesses and industrialized states dominate another country's economy.

  • Asia and Latin America were targets of this due to their supply of raw materials for industrialization (cotton, rubber, oil, metals).

  • Traded strategically to give imperialist countries’ merchants a large economic advantage.

• Examples of economic imperialism include:

  • Britain and France expanding economic power in China through the Opium Wars and the rebuilding of the Suez Canal. (Spheres of Influence).

  • International corporations like the banana republics.

• Migration increased as people were looking to work in industrialized states.

• The new capitalist economy relied on semi-coerced and coerced labor migration.

  • Enslavement and indentured servitude of Chinese and Indians.

  • Convict labor.

1900 - Present

World Wars and Interwar Economy

• Both World Wars were fought with total war strategies where they invested their whole economies into weapon manufacturing.

• The Treaty of Versailles placed extensive war reparations on Germany, leading to massive inflation and struggle in the German economy.

• After a extreme stock market crash in the US, the Great Depression began in 1929.

  • Effected global economy due to interconnections, making it the world’s worst economic collapse.

• As a response to the Great Depression, more governments became involved with the economy (increase in socialism).

  • The New Deal in the US involved the government aiding welfare.

• After WW2, new states' governments promoted economic development.

Communist Economies

• Communism was an extreme version of Marxism, it promoted a classless society in which all resources are communally-owned rather than individuals.

• Joseph Stalin’s Five Year Plans monitored the Soviet Union economy through oppressive policies that led to famine.

  • Also forcefully took land away from higher class peasants for redistribution.

• China became communist after the revolution in 1949, motivated by Japanese aggression and internal affairs.

• President Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward transformed China into socialist economy through rapid industrialization and collectivization.

  • Like Russia, these oppressive policies had horrific consequences including extensive famine.

Globalization

• After the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, more governments promoted free markets and economic liberalization.

  • Regional trade agreements/organizations like the World Bank, World Trade Organization, and the North American Free Trade Agreement reflected this.

• Informational and technological developments created knowledge economies.

• Manufacturing was transfered more to Asia and Latin America (less developed countries).

  • Businesses often do offshoring where they build their factories in these countries as labor is cheaper there.

• No more isolated states meant multinational corporations could rise (Adidas, McDonalds, ect).

Humans and the Environment-Timeline

1200 - 1450

• Aztecs used chinampas (artificial islands built on lakes) for farming due to their geography.

• Merchants on trade routes spread new crops (Champa rice, Bananas) which increased populations, migration rates, and environmental degradation.

• Merchants and Mongols spread diseases like the Bubonic Plague, which killed large populations and gave workers more power over wage negotiations.

• Merchants on the Indian Ocean Trade Network used Monsoon winds for efficient travel.

• China used terrace farming due to their mountainous terrain.

1450 - 1750

• Europeans brought diseases to like smallpox to the Americas during the Columbian Exchange, killing many Native Americans as they were not immune to it.

• Europeans brought new food to the Americas and horses which enabled Natives to hunt better thus have a surplus of food and focus on other aspects of life.

• Mesoamericans introduced new food like potatoes to Europe and Africa, changing diet and increasing population growth.

• Europeans started large scale farming in the Americas, leading to environmental degradation.

1750 - 1900

• Factors leading to industrialization: proximity to waterways, access to factory materials locally and foreign (coal, iron, timber), improved agricultural activity meant farmers could become factory workers.

• Industrial Revolution brought farming techniques like crop rotation and technology, increase in farming led to further environmental degradation.

• The trend of urbanization meant heavily populated cities with pollutive factories using nonrenewable energy, all of which deteriorated the environment.

• Colonies were forced to mass farm cash crops, decreasing biodiversity and local food supply.

• Imperial powers heavily harvested materials for industrial needs in their colonies.

• Many famines and large scale poverty drove people to migrate for better lives. The Great Famine in Ireland started from farming problems, leading to many migrations to America.

• Workers also migrated to successful industrial areas.

1900 - Present

• Diseases like Malaria and Tuberculosis spread through poverty filled areas as they lacked sanitation and vaccine/healthcare availability.

• Globalization caused global epidemics like AIDS, Spanish Flue, and Ebola.

• Globalization’s increased product demands led to deforestation, desertification, and decline in air quality.

• Urbanization and rapid population growth caused the continuing of environmental damage.

• Non-renewable energy and clean drinking water sources depleted.

• Raising temperatures result of climate change. Global organizations have came together to address solutions to the environmental situation.

Cultural Developments and Interactions

1200 - 1450

• Song China population followed Confucianism and were unified under this one philosophy, one language, and one culture.

• China had strong influence over Japan culture despite the Japanese resisting.

• New forms of Buddhism made their way to China and Southeast Asia, such as Zen Buddhism which was a more religious version.

• Dar al Islam was united by Islam and Arabic. Islam was not able to spread to India under the Mughal Empire due to the distinct differences with Hinduism. Islam spread to West Africa through merchants.

• Hinduism rooted in India’s culture, the Caste System shaped their social hierarchy.

• The Roman Catholic Church established places of knowledge and science, it unified Europe culturally.

• The Crusades went to Jerusalem as directed by the Roman Catholic Church, they spread Christianity and fought Muslims for the holy sites.

• The Renaissance brought the rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman art.

• Mongol rule allowed all religions to continue their practices, and with protection those religions were able to spread even more (mostly Muslim).

• Merchants on the Indian Ocean trade system spread their culture and religion, especially Muslim merchants. This also created diasporic communities between merchants.

• Merchants on trade routes also syncretized their religions with the existing religions in trade areas. Ex: Zen Buddhism made from Daoism and Buddhism.

• Merchants languages syncretized as well. Ex: Arabic and Bantu combined into Swahili.

• Chinese maritime activity was led by admiral Zheng He created cultural and technological transfers.

• Marco Polo’s trips to China inspired Europeans’ desire to trade with and travel to Asia/Africa.

• Ibn Battuta traveled throughout Dar al Islam and rest of Asia and Africa, inspiring Muslims to travel to and trade with the rest of the world.

1450 - 1750

• Protestant Reformation changed existing Christian traditions and resulted in the division between Roman Catholicism and the new Protestantism.

• The political rivalry between the Ottomans and the Safavids intensified split in Islam with Shi’a and Sunnis.

• As Hindus and Muslims interacted, Sikhism, a new syncretic religion was formed in South Asia.

• Increase in interactions between the East and West, after the Columbian Exchange started, expanded reach/spread of existing religions and development of syncretic beliefs rather than fully accepting Christianity.

• Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate cut itself off from European cultural influence.

• European Jesuits attempted to convert the Chinese as interactions increased during the Qing Dynasty.

1750 - 1900

• Enlightenment philosophies questioned religion’s role in society and emphasized reason over faith, but also normalized religious freedom.

• Enlightenment political ideas about natural rights, the social contract, and the individual question government traditions and inspired rebellions.

• Nationalism became driving force for future empire/state developments.

• In 1776, the Declaration of Independence was singed during the American Revolution, it’s democratic ideals from Enlightenment thinking inspired revolutions in Haiti and France.

• Imperialism was justified by nationalism, social Darwinism, and the desire to convert and civilize populations.

• Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 was caused by British rulers not respecting the Hindu beliefs of their Indian colonized soldiers, the Sepoys.

• As Europe colonized and attempted to convert Africa, Christianity was combined with African religions, including Shamanism and Animism.

• As immigration increased greatly due to new push and pull factors, restrictions on immigration targeted groups, cultural and racial, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act in the US.

1900 - Present

• The Cold War was driven by the ideological conflict between capitalism and communism.

• Movements like the Non Aligned Movement promoted alternative social ideologies during the Cold War.

• Movements lead by individuals like MLK, Gandhi, and Nelson Mandela promoted non-violent ways of change.

• Other movements believed in violence, mainly terrorists.

• Globalization influenced arts, entertainment, and popular/consumer culture.

• Global consumerism rose as economic culture, including online shopping

Governance

1200 - 1450 (and Contextualization Evidence)

• The Song Dynasty (960-1279) controlled China with Confucian values implemented into government positional polices like the Civil Service Exam and the Mandate of Heaven.

  • Ruled with an imperial bureaucracy.

• By 1200, the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), who had once ruled Dar-al Islam politically and religiously, fragmented into new Islamic political entities who were mostly Turkic ruled.

  • Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) established Muslim rule in India.

  • Seljuk Empire (1040-1157) in present Turkey spread Sunni Islam and developed strong military force but defeated by Mongols and later became Ottoman Empire.

  • Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517) in Egypt consisted of former slaves who overthrew the government.

• Caliphs were Islamic rulers religiously and politically during Caliphates, Sultans were just political leaders of Islamic empires.

• Hindu and Buddhist states emerged in South and Southeast Asia and governments used their religions to justify their rule.

  • Land based: The Rajput kingdoms, Khmer Empire, and Sukhothai kingdom.

  • Trade on Indian Ocean: Majapahit and Srivijaya Empire, Sinhala Kingdoms, the Vijayanagara Empire.

• North and South American states expanded their rule through innovative state systems.

  • Maya city-states in Mexico operated on small scale.

  • Aztecs (1325-1521) had the tribute system to control controlled people.

  • The Incas (1438-1533) used the Mit’a System.

• African kingdoms developed and expanded.

  • Prior to big kingdoms, Africa’s politics ran by many kinships.

  • Ethiopia ran through traditions and Christianity, continued to develop with Indian Ocean trade.

  • Great Zimbabwe (1100-1400s) held trade power in East Africa, Hausa Kingdoms in West Africa.

  • The Kingdom of Mali (1235-1600s) used Islam to display power (Mansa Musa’s Hajj).

• Europe was fragmented and ruled by decentralized monarchies and feudalism. This age was ended by the spread of the Bubonic plague as it gave peasants wage-negotiation power.

  

• The nomadic Mongols led by Genghis Khan took over Eurasia, largest continuous land empire ever (1206-1368).

• Despite disturbing powerful empires, they imposed religious tolerance, foreign administrators (Persian bureaucrats in China), and expanded trade which all allowed the ‘old world’ to develop and become connected.

1450 - 1750

• Gunpowder Empires expanded their control over Asia through the development of firearms.

  • Ottoman Empire (1299 and 1922), Safavid Empire (1501-1722), Mughal Empire (1526–1761).

  • These empires controlled with developed bureaucracies.

• Maritime states emerged with militarized ships that dominated trade and exploration.

  • Includes the Portuguese, Spanish, British, Dutch, and French empires.

  • Started to colonize Americas and became Trading Post Empires in Africa and Asia.

  • Some supported Joint-Stock Companies to project power through economic authority.

• Large empires justified and consolidated their power through religion, taxing, and architecture.

  • Religion: Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, Divine Right of Kings in Europe, Caliphs in Islamic Empires.

  • Tax: Tax Farming in Ottoman Empire, Tribute System in the Aztec Empire.

  • Architecture: Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire, Sun Temple in the Inca Empire.

• China and Japan adopted isolationist policies as the European Maritime Empires expanded.

• Challenges to large empires:

  • Rivalries: Ottomans vs Portuguese, Portuguese vs Dutch, Ottomans vs Safavids.

  • Resistances in slaves (colonies), Native Americans, and the Cossacks in Russia.

1750 - 1900

Enlightenment and Industrialization

• The Enlightenment brought ideas that questioned existing monarchies and their traditions.

  • Ideas of the social contract, nationalism, reason, and individualism.

  • Thinkers: John Locke (promoted democracy and human rights), Voltaire (freedom of religion), Montesquieu (anti-monarch/dictator).

• In the Americas, revolutions started in the 1750s against imperial rule, plus France.

  • American Revolution: 1765-1791, fueled by unfair taxation and enlightenment ideas.

  • Haitian Revolution: 1791-1804, fueled by slavery and enlightenment ideas.

  • Spanish American Wars: 1808-1833, fueled by slavery, oppressive social hierarchy, and enlightenment ideas.

  • French Revolution: 1789-1799, fueled by unjust monarchy and enlightenment ideas.

• Nationalism brought calls for unity within the Ottoman Empire (Ottomanism) and Germany, but also broke apart diverse places like the Philippines and the Balkans.

• The Industrial Revolution caused some states to begin state sponsored industrial development plans. Ex: Egypt’s leader Muhammad Ali pushed industrialization.

  • As the US and Europe became powerful with industrialization, Japan and Russia’s governments got more involved in pushing industrialization.

• Idea of a Laissez Faire system where government did not interfere with markets became known as capitalism.

• Idea of Marxism gained support for the greater good of as many people, became known as communism.

• Workers in Europe and the US protested for better factory conditions and rights. Ex: Workers Protection Act of 1891 improved rights and conditions of German workers.

• Women protested for work, voting, and education rights. Ex: Women Suffrage Movement in the US (1840-1920).

Imperialism

• In order to gain industrial resources, European nations, the US, and Japan started imperial expansion, and strengthened their control over existing colonies.

  • Europe colonized overseas while US, Japan, and others took over neighboring countries.

• European nations expanded with both diplomacy and warfare.

  • Established settler colonies, Ex: North Americas, and penal colonies, Ex: Australia (British).

• Governments justified imperialism: religious conversion, civilizing foreigners, economic development, nationalism, and social Darwinism.

• Rebellions and resistances rose against imperialism.

  • Sepoy Rebellion: (1857) Indian soldiers fought against British direct rule due to religious mistreatment.

  • Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864): Chinese revolt against the Qing Dynasty due to Christian upheaval and poor economic conditions.

  • Ghost Dance Movement (1890): Peaceful and religious Native American protests to U.S. policies.

  • Battle of Adwa (1896): Ethiopia was the only African nation to successfully resist imperialism with help from alliances with neighboring kingdoms and Russia.

1900 - Present

World War I (1914 - 1918)

• Although the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to throne of Austria-Hungary, by Serbian nationalists provided the spark for the first world war, it was made global by long term tensions.

  • Militarism: European powers invested heavily into their military and navy, causing competition and paranoia.

  • Alliances: Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottomans) vs Allies (France, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, Serbia, and the US at the end. Started with Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia).

  • Imperialism: The competition for land (Ex: Scramble for Africa) caused tensions between European powers.

  • Nationalism: Tied all causes together, reason for assassination, and governments used to get soldiers to fight.

• The result of WW1 shifted power from the previous large land empires and weakened maritime empires.

  • Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary Empire, and Qing Empire all collapsed and fragmented into new states.

  • The Treaty of Versailles put much of the blame on Germany as they were the only central power left standing, putting them into a stage of economic struggle and much resentment.

• Russia exited mid war due to their communist revolution. In 1917 the Bolshevik party seized power and founded the Soviet Union.

• Mexico had a socialist revolution (1910), driven by the desire to redistribute wealth and land.

• After WW1, western powers retained colonies and some gained more, Japan also gained more land and power.

World War II (1939 - 1945)

• Fascism grew in Europe and took political power in Germany and Italy.

  • Adolf Hitler of the Nazi Party in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy were fascist and despised both communism and democracy, while using nationalism to inspire their people.

• Italy (Ethiopia), Germany (Poland), Japan (China), and Russia (Poland) demonstrated their power with aggressive militarism and conquering, ending world peace.

  • The invasion of Poland forced Britain and France to fight Germany, as they promised to.

• Other causes of WW2 include the unsustainable peace from the Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression.

• Axis Powers (Italy, Japan, Germany) vs Allies (Great Britain, US, Soviet Union).

  • Soviets attempted to join Germany’s conquest by helping them with poland, but Germany turned on them and invaded them, forcing the USSR to help the Allies.

• Like WWI, WW2 was fought with total war strategies focused all their resources into mobilizing their populations.

• Germany conquered a large amount of Europe, including Northern France, but were stopped at Britain.

• The US was forced to join the battle when Japan bombed Pearl Harbor

• Unlike past wars, governments attacked civilians in order to force their opponent to surrender, ex: firebombing.

• WW2 ended with the Nazis surrendering after losing France and Hitler’s suicide (V-E Day) and the Japanese surrender after the nuclear bomb launched on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the U.S.

Cold War and Decolonization

• After WW2, the US and USSR were the two global superpowers as the world was weakened.

• Agreements/conferences between the big three (USSR, US, Great Britain) ended up with the Soviets taking over Eastern Europe and heavy tensions between them and the US.

• New military alliances: NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• Countries who didn’t want to be involved and promoted alternative governments were part of the Non Aligned Movement

• Main events of the Cold War:

  • Space and Nuclear Arms Races

  • Proxy Wars (Korean, Vietnam, Angolan, Afghanistan)

  • Cuban Missile Crisis

  • Separation of Germany (Berlin Wall)

• Many countries in Africa and Asia started independence movements against the weakened European empires. Fueled by nationalism mainly, (Pan Arabism and Pan Africanism).

  • India gained independence in 1947, as well as Pakistan being formed by the Muslim League.

  • Ghana and Algeria promoted elected governments while Algeria consisted of authoritarian power and banning elections, which brought harsh fighting.

  • In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian King and established the Republic of Egypt.

  • The UN founded Israel for the Jews. Although the new country was formed where the Palestinians were promised to form their new country, causing war between Arab nations and the US.

• The Cold War was ended by the collapse of the Soviet Union which was caused by:

  • Failure in the Afghanistan invasion

  • Gorbachev’s policies fueled Eastern Bloc independence movements.

  • Economic policies put them in a poor state with poverty.

Globalization

• After WW1, the League of Nations was made to prevent future conflict but was unsuccessful as WW2 broke out

• United Nations formed after WW2, between the US, USSR, and other members to promote world peace.

• Government Organizations were formed to keep peace and cooperation between countries.

  • United Nations, European Union, East African Community.

• Non-Government Organizations were formed

  • World Bank, Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders.