Beliefs in society sociology

Durkheim (1912) – What did he argue was the main social function of religion?

It creates social solidarity and collective conscience (Functionalist)

Parsons (1967) – What role does religion play in society according to him?

Provides value consensus and moral guidelines (Functionalist)

Malinowski (1954) – How does religion help people cope?

Helps individuals manage life crises and reduce anxiety (Functionalist)

Marx (1844) – What is religion’s main purpose?

Acts as “opium of the people,” dulling pain of exploitation (Marxist)

Althusser (1971) – How is religion seen in his theory?

Part of the Ideological State Apparatus maintaining capitalism (Marxist)

Gramsci (1971) – How can religion challenge power?

Through counter-hegemony, inspiring resistance (Neo-Marxist)

Maduro (1982) – What did he argue about religion and revolution?

Religion can motivate revolutionary social movements (Neo-Marxist)

Simone de Beauvoir (1953) – How does religion oppress women?

By promising rewards in the afterlife for obedience (Feminist)

El Saadawi (1980) – What did she say causes women’s oppression?

Patriarchal interpretations of religion, not the faith itself (Feminist)

Woodhead (2009) – What is “spiritual feminism”?

Using religion for empowerment and self-expression (Feminist)

Davie (2013) – What is meant by “believing without belonging”?

People still have faith but don’t attend institutions (Late Modern)

Hervieu-Léger (2000) – What is “spiritual shopping”?

Individuals pick and mix religious beliefs (Postmodernist)

Lyon (2000) – What does “Jesus in Disneyland” mean?

Religion becomes a consumer product or spectacle (Postmodernist)

Stark & Bainbridge (1985) – What does religious market theory suggest?

Religious competition increases participation (Market Theory)

Weber (1905) – How did Calvinism lead to capitalism?

Work ethic and predestination encouraged economic success (Social Action)

Bruce (2003) – What social movement did he link to religion and change?

The Civil Rights Movement in the USA (Functionalist/Practical Theorist)

Huntington (1996) – What is the “clash of civilisations”?

Religious differences causing global conflict (Globalisation Theorist)

Wilson (1966) – What evidence did he use for secularisation?

Declining church attendance in the UK (Secularisation Theorist)

Bruce (2011) – Why has religion declined according to him?

Rationalisation and a technological worldview (Secularisation Theorist)

Berger (1969) – How does religious pluralism cause decline?

Competing truths weaken faith certainty (Phenomenologist)

Giddens (1999) – Why does fundamentalism emerge?

Reaction to globalisation and modernity (Late Modernist)

Castells (2004) – What are the two responses to globalisation?

Resistance identity and project identity (Late Modernist)

Modood (1997) – How does religion help ethnic minorities?

Maintains cultural identity and community ties (Cultural Sociologist)

Johal (1998) – What is a “hybrid identity”?

Mixing religious traditions with Western culture (Cultural Sociologist)

Miller & Hoffman (1995) – Why are women more religious?

Risk aversion and socialisation into nurturing roles (Feminist/Religious Sociologists)

Heelas (1996) – Why do New Age Movements attract women?

Emphasis on self-expression and personal growth (Postmodernist)

Voas & Crockett (2005) – Why are older people more religious?

Socialisation and awareness of mortality (Empirical/Statistical Sociologists)