Bio final

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

CHNOPS

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur.

Atom

Smallest particle of an element

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Ion

atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons

molecule

2 or more atoms bonded together

organic molecules

molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen

inorganic molecules

molecules that do not contain carbon or hydrogen

Orbital

most likely location for an electron to be found relative to the nucleus. Each holds 2 elections

energy shell

group of electron orbitals that share the same energy level

valence shell

outermost electron shell. Determines chemical properties and is the basis of chemical bonding

inert

nonreactive. Valence shell is full

reactive

valence shell is partially empty

chemical bond

An attractive force that holds together the atoms, ions, or groups of atoms in a molecule or compound.

ionic bonds

result from the electrical attraction between 2 ions with opposite charges

covalent bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

Electronegativity

A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons

nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms. Electronegativity is relatively close

polar covalent bond

A covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.

dehydration synthesis

joins monomers into polymers (takes water out)

Hydrolysis

breaks polymers apart by adding a water molecule

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules. glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. Energy storage, structural support Example: sucrose

complex sugars (polysaccharides)

large polymers made from hundreds of monosaccharides. Function: energy storage, structural support. Example: chitin, starch, glycogen, cellulose

Lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. HYDROPHOBIC

Triglycerides

3 fatty acids attached to glycerol
Uses dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

saturated fatty acids

have all single bonds between carbons (animal fats, solid)

unsaturated fats

have one or more double bonds (plant derived, liquid)

Sterols

4 interconnected carbon rings. Vitamin, sex hormones

Waxes

fatty acids combined with hydrocarbons or alcohols. Forms water-repellent covering

Polypeptide

100 or more amino acids

Primary (1°) structure

chain of amino acids joined by peptide covalent bonds in a specific order. Determines protein structure and function

Secondary (2°) structure

hydrogen b0onds formed between adjacent amino and carboxyl groups

teritary structure

overall shape of a polypeptide

quarternary structure

The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits. (not found in all proteins)

Denaturation

loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid. Nitrogenous bases:: A, C, T, G

RNA

single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose. Nitrogenous bases: A,C,G,U

adensoine triposphate (ATP)

compound used by cells to store and release energy

Cohesion

tendency of water molecules to stick together

Adhesion

tendency to form hydrogen bonds with other substances

Acid

compound that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

Base

more OH+ in the solution

pH scale

scale with values from 0 to 14, used to measure the concentration of H+ ions in a solution; a pH of 0 to 7 is acidic, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH of 7 to 14 is basic

Robert Hooke

first to observe outlines of cells

Anthony van Leeuwenhoek

Invented the microscope

Mattias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

formulated cell theory (1838)

Virchow

All cells come from other cells

compound light microscope

a light microscope which uses two lenses to magnify an object; can view living specimens, provide true color images, provides lower level of magnification/resolution

transmisson electron microscope

highest level of resolution, beam of electrons focused by electromagnets

scanning electron microscope

requires sample to be coated in metal particles ,can provide surface images

Domain Bacteria

lack nucleus, rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan,

Domain Archea

phospholipids, cell walls, ribosomes, flagella crique

Domain Eukarya

Domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

cell membrane

thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Fluid Mosiac Membrane

· 'Fluid' indicates that the phospholipids and proteins are not held rigidly in place, but rather that they can flow fluidly throughout the cellular membrane.

cell wall

A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms.

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

nuclear envelope

A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in the cell

nuclear pores

holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus

Ribosomes

Makes proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

Lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes

central vacuole

A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development.

Peroxisomes

Break down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide

Chloroplast

organelle found in cells of plants and some other organisms that captures the energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical energy

Chromoplasts

Organelles that contain pigments used in photosynthesis.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

Microtubules

Thick hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers.

Microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

energy

the ability to do work

work

move matter

potential energy

stored energy
Example: chemical bonds, concentration gradient

kinetic energy

energy being used to do work
Example: heat, light, work

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed (law of conservation of energy)

2nd law of thermodynamics

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.

cellular respiration

potential energy in chemical bonds of glucose

Metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism's cells

endergonic reaction

require an input of energy to occur

exergonic reaction

release/output energy as they proceed

Phosphorylation

cells use ATP as an energy source by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule
1. Encourages a target molecule to react by making it chemically unstable
2. Can cause a protein to change shape

coupled reactions

the energy released by an exergonic reaction is used to drive an endergonic reaction

activation energy

amount of energy needed to start a reaction

active site

region where substrate binds to the enzyme

Steps in an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction

1. Substrate Binds
2. enzyme undergoes conformation change that binds the substrates more tightly
3. substrates are converted to products
4. products are released

Cofactors

metal ions
Example: Fe2+, Zn2+, Cu1+

Coenzymes

organic compounds known as vitamins
Example: B Vitamins (1,2,6,12), niacin (B3), and vitamin C

positive feedback

product activates metabolic pathway responsible for its production
Ex: blood clotting

negative feedback (feedback inhibition)

excess of a metabolic pathway's product inhibits an enzyme controlling its formation
Ex: thermostat

noncompetitive inhibition

product molecules bind to the enzyme at a location other than the active site in a way that alters the enzyme's shape so that it can no longer bind the substrate

competitive inhibition

the product of a reaction binds to the enzyme's active site, preventing it from binding substrate

Denaturation

loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor

passive transport

requires no energy

Diffusion

the spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration or electrochemical gradient, from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated.

simple diffusion

Diffusion that doesn't involve a direct input of energy or assistance by carrier proteins.

Osmosis

simple diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane

Hypertonic

solute concentration higher outside the cell; water leaves cell; cell shrinks