AP Psych Flashcards

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

accommodation reflex

ability of eye to adjust to variations in distance

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

activation-synthesis (dreams)

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

adoption studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

adrenaline

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion.

afterimages

images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed

All-or nothing principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

amplitude

Height of a wave

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

association areas

areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycle)

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

conduction deafness

An inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear.

cones

color vision

consciousness

a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind

consolidation theory (dreams)

The theory that dreams help to cement memories and learning.

contralateral hemispheric organization

The arrangement whereby each hemisphere is mainly responsible for the information of the opposite side of the body.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

dichromatism

one cone type is missing or malfunctioning

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time… not same DNA

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

epigenetics

the study of nature upon nurture

epilepsy

chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity

eugenics

science dealing with improving hereditary qualities

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing

executive functioning

the cognitive abilities and processes that allow humans to plan or inhibit their actions

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

farsightedness

a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

frequency theory

theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane

frontal lobes

areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

gate control theory

the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

genetic predisposition

inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts)

ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

gustation

sense of taste

hemispheric specialization

The control of distinct neurological functions by the right and left hemispheres of the brain.

heredity

the transmission of traits from one generation to the next

higher-order thinking

creative thinking; "complex thinking that requires effort and produces valued outcomes"

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

interneurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

jet lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

Jim Twins

James Arthur Springer and James Edward Lewis, otherwise known as the "Jim" twins were separated shortly after birth and reunited at age thirty-nine; they exhibited many similarities in personality and personal habits

just-noticeable difference

the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain

limbic system

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

linguistic processing

Brain functions involved in understanding and producing language.

long-term potentiation

ability of nerves to activate when recall info that has been learned

loudness

A sensory characteristic of sound produced by the amplitude (intensity) of the sound wave

medium tasters

average number of taste buds

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

monochromatism

color blindness

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo… have same DNA, same sex

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

multiple sclerosis

myelin sheath destruction. disruptions in nerve impulse conduction

myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

nearsightedness

a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

neural transmission

electrochemical communication within and between neurons and the final destination

neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

nontasters

insensitive to taste

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

NREM

non-rapid eye movement

NREM stage 1

A few minutes, light sleep, easily aroused, gradual reduction in vital signs

NREM stage 2

10-20 min, can be awakened w/effort, deeper relaxation

NREM stage 3

15-30 min, early phase of deep sleep, snoring, relaxed muscle tone, little/no physical movement, difficult to arouse

nurture

environment

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

olfactory system

the sensory system for smell

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts.