Final Sociological Research Methods

Administrative Records

Include data collected by government agencies or corporations as part of their own record-keeping

Big Data

Includes data sets with billions of pieces of information, typically created through individuals’ interactions with technology

Case-oriented research

Scientists gather large amounts of data about a single case or small number of cases

Census

A study that includes data on every member of a population, as opposed to only a sample

Cluster Sampling

A probability sampling strategy in which researchers divide up the target population into groups, or “clusters”

Confidence Interval

The range implied by the margin of error

Confidence level

The probability that an estimate includes the population parameter

Convenience Sample

The cheapest and easiest observations are selected

Deviant case

Cases that are unusual, unexpected, or hard to explain given what is currently known about a topic

Key informant

The first point of contact a researcher has with his or her study population

Margin of error

The amount of uncertainty in an estimate; equal to the distance between the estimate and the boundary of the confidence interval

Nonprobability sample

a group of people selected for a research study using non-random methods, meaning that not every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen

Oversample

A group that is likely to be underrepresented in a simple random sample

Population parameter

A number that characterizes some quantitative aspect of a population

Postsurvey weighting

adjusting the results of a survey after data collection by assigning different weights to individual responses

Probability sample

A sample chosen via random selection

Purposive sampling

A sampling strategy in which cases are selected on the basis of features that distinguish them from other cases

Sample

Subsets of a population selected for a study

Sampling

The process of deciding what or whom to observe when you cannot observe and analyze everything or everyone

Sampling distribution

A set of estimates that would be observed from a large number of independent samples that are all the same size and drawn using the same method

Sampling error

Error occurring at random

Sample for range

The range is a measure of variability, which describes how far values are from each other and the center value.

Sampling frame

A list of population members from which a probability sample is drawn

Saturation

the point where a researcher has collected enough data to fully understand a phenomenon

Sequential sampling

A sampling strategy in which researchers make decisions about what additional data to collect based on their findings from data they’ve already collected

Simple random sample

A type of probability sample in which each individual/unit has the same probability of being selected

Snowball sampling

A strategy in which the researcher starts with one respondent who meets the requirements for inclusion and asks him or her to recommend other people to contact

Strata

The population divided into groups

Stratified sampling

A probability sampling strategy in which members are selected in strategic proportions from each group

Systematic error

A flaw built into the design of the study that causes a sample estimate to diverge from the population parameter

Systematic sample

A probability sampling strategy in which sample members are selected by using a fixed interval

Target Population

The population being studied

Typical

A case that has features that are similar in as many respects as possible to the average of the population it represents

Unbiased

fair or impartial

Variable-oriented research

Scientists study a large number of cases, but gather only a limited amount of data about each

Weighted

A determination of how much sample members “count” when producing estimates

Acquiescence bias

a phenomenon where individuals are likely to agree with something regardless of how they actually feel

Anonymity

a participant's identity is completely unknown to the researcher

Attrition

the loss of study participants from a sample, or when a study's analysis doesn't include a randomly assigned sample member

Audio computer-assisted self-interview

An innovative technology designed to facilitate the self-administered component of the face-to-face interview

Close-ended question

questions that can only be answered by selecting from a limited number of options

Codebook

a document that lists all the codes used in your analysis, featuring clear definitions and illustrative examples of each

Cognitive Interview

a qualitative technique used to understand how participants interpret and respond to survey questions by examining their thought processes while answering

Composite Measure

a single score calculated by combining multiple individual measures

Computer-assisted personal interview

a data collection method that uses a computer to help an interviewer conduct face-to-face interviews

Computer-assisted telephone interview

a research method that uses a computer to control some aspects of a phone survey

Confidentiality

the researcher's commitment to protect and not disclose any identifiable private information provided by participants

Coverage error

The sampling frame does not adequately capture all members of the target population. It results from either systematically omitting respondents or including the same respondents multiple times

Cross-sectional survey

Surveys for which data are collected at only one time point

Dichotomous outcome

“yes” or “no” answer

Double-barreled question

a single question that asks about two separate issues or topics, forcing respondents to give one answer that could potentially represent their opinion on both

Exhaustive

a study, search, or list that is very thorough and complete, and includes all possibilities

Forced choice

a research technique that presents respondents with limited options

Frequency distribution

a statistical method that organizes data by showing how often each value within a dataset occurs

Index

A sum of responses to multiple survey items that capture a particular concept being measured

Interview Schedule

a structured document that outlines the specific questions an interviewer will ask during a qualitative research interview

Interviewer effects

the phenomenon where the characteristics, behavior, or presence of the interviewer can influence the responses given by a participant during an interview

Likert Scale

captures the respondent’s level of agreement or disagreement with a statement

Longitudinal survey

Studies in which data are copllected at multiple time points

Measurement error

Occurs when the approach used to measure a particular variable affects the response provided

Mode effects

the phenomenon where the method of data collection significantly impacts the responses received, leading to different results depending on the chosen mode of administration

Mode of administration

The way the survey is administered

Mutually exclusive

a statistical term describing two or more events that cannot happen simultaneously

Open-ended questions

Broad interview questions where subjects respond in their own words rather than in preset ways

Order effects

When the order in which questions appear biases the responses

Panel survey

Data are collected on the same subjects at multiple time points

Paper and pencil interview

where the researcher asks questions and records

the respondent’s answers in a preprinted copy of the survey booklet

Paradata

data that is collected as a by-product of the data collection process, and it provides information about the quality, cost, and progress of the data collection

Poll

a human research survey of public opinion from a particular sample

Primary data collection

Occurs when social researchers design and carry out their own data collection

Priming effects

A type of order effect in which exposure to a particular image, word, or feeling shapes how respondents think and feel in the immediate aftermath

Ranking items

A type of close-ended question that asks the respondent to rank-order their priorities or preferences

Rating scale

a set of ordered categories used to measure and collect data about an individual's opinions, attitudes, or perceptions on a specific attribute by asking them to select a response from a predefined range

Repeated cross-sectional survey

data that are collected at multiple time points but from different subjects at each time point

Response categories

The preset answers on a survey

Response rate

the number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample

Response set

the tendency for people to respond to questions in a way that paints a certain picture of themselves instead of providing honest answers

Scale

Averages the responses to multiple items that capture a particular concept

Screener question

a set of initial questions used to filter potential participants in a study, identifying those who meet the specific criteria needed for the research and excluding those who do not, essentially pre-qualifying respondents before they participate in the main study

Secondary data source

A resource that was collected by someone else

Self-administered questionnaire

A survey completed directly by respondents through the mail or online

Showcard

a visual aid used in survey research to help respondents answer questions

Skip pattern

a logic used in questionnaires or surveys where respondents are directed to skip certain questions based on their previous answers

Social desirability bias

Respondents may report socially valued behaviors and attitudes in the survey setting

Split ballot design

The practice of creating multiple versions of a survey questionnaire and randomly assigning participants to one of the different versions.

Stem

research conducted in the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

Survey

A social research method in which researchers ask a sample of individuals to answer a series of questions

Survey instrument

the tool used to collect data from respondents in a survey

Experiment

The researcher manipulates one or more independent variables to determine the effect on a dependent variable

Independent variable

the purported cause of a causal hypothesis, on which the dependent variable may depend

Dependent variable

the variable that is acted upon, or the outcome the researcher seeks to understand

Experimental group

The group that is exposed to the experimental manipulation

Experimental condition

when the researcher manipulates the independent variable to assess its effect on the dependent variable

Control group

The group that is not exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable

Control condition

a condition that is used as a standard of comparison in a statistical analysis or scientific experiment

Random assignment

the process of assigning participants to different groups within an experiment using a chance procedure

Selection bias

situations where research bias is introduced due to factors related to the study's participants

Causality

Refers to a relationship in which one factor or variable is dependent on another factor or variable

Spuriousness

A condition when the apparent relation between two concepts is actually the result of some third concept, or confound, influencing both of them

Laboratory experiment

Takes place in laboratories and give researchers the maximum amount of control over the environment in which the experiment is conducted