Bio 101 HCC Final

Nervous System

-processing center for sensory output

-elicit appropriate responses

Negative Feedback Loop

-corrective adjustments to maintain homeostasis

-10/11 body systems

Positive Feedback Loop

-output pushes change in same direction so it continues

-1/11 body systems → reproductive system

Solute

particle to be dissolves

Cellular Respiration

-converts glucose and O2 to CO2, water, and ATP

-releases energy for cellular functions

ATP

-adenosine triphosphate

-main energy source for cells

-has an adenine base, ribose sugar, & 3 phosphate groups

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

-starts w/ → Acetyl-CoA

-ends w/ → NADH, FADH2, ATP, CO2

-location → mitochondria

-O2 → yes (indirectly)

Golgi Apparatus

-cell’s processing/packaging center

-receives/sports proteins

Cytoskeleton

-maintain cell structure & organization

Hypertonic

-having a higher osmotic pressure

-cell shrinks & shrivels

Energy

-capacity to work/ produce change

-kinetic → motion (moving car)

-potential → stored (ball @ top of hill)

Integumentary System

-protection against external environment

-temperature regulation

-skin, hair, nail, glands

Solution

-when solute is uniformly distributed in the solvent

Plasma Membrane

-holds cell contents in place

-regulates what enters/exits the cell

Urinary System

-filters blood

-excretion of waste from the body

Photosynthesis

-light → chemical energy

-(sunlight, water, CO2) → (glucose, oxygen)

-captures energy in ecosystems

Solvent

gas or liquid that the solute is dissolved in

Terminal Electron Acceptor

-oxygen

-forms water when combined with electrons & proteins (H2O)

Muscular System

-voluntary & involuntary movement

Electron transport Chain (ETC)

-starts w/ → NADH, FADH2

-ends w/ → ATP, water

-location → inner mitochondrial membrane

-O2 → yes

Reproductive System

production of reproductive cells that produce offspring

Cell Theory

1. all living organisms are made of cells

2. 2. all cells arise from pre-existing cells

Hydrogen Ion Concentration Gradient

-H+ is pumped into inner rmembrane

-creates gradient to drive ATP synthesis → synthase

Muscle Tissue

-contracting

-generate tension & movement

-skeletal → moves skeleton

-cardiac → pumps blood from heart

smooth → controls movements of stuff through tubes and organs

5 Types of Connective Tissue

Bone → support/protection; stores minerals

Cartilage → shock absorber, cushion, smooth more

Adipose → fat, insulation, cushion

Blood → immune response, transport

Tendons/Ligaments _> support for movement; connect muscles to bones and bones to bones

Mitochondria

generate most of energy for cell reactions

Fluid Mosaic Model

-plasma membrane

-molecules float in bilayers staying in right spot

-stays flexible due to cholesterol

Phospholipids

-head (hydrophilic) →polar; glycerol; phosphorus

-tails (hydrophobic) → nonpolar; carbdon/hydrogen chain

-head is toward cellular fluids

Cellular Respiration

-36-38 ATP

-need O2

-in mitochondria

-CO2, water

Fermentation

-2 ATP

-O2 not needed

-in cytoplasm

-ethanol, CO2 (yeast/alcoholic fermentation), lactic acid (animals/ anaerobic respiration)

Electron Carriers

-NADH & FADH2

-transport high-energy electrons to ETC → used to generate ATP

-NADH contributes more electrons → more energy/ATP

Lysosome

digestive system of cell

Ribosomes

converts genetic info to protein structure

Set Point

level point of stabilization

Facilitated Diffusion

-cell membrane transport

-high → low concentration

-requires transport proteins

-no ATP

-carbs, amino acids, nucleosides, ions

Active Transport

-cell membrane transport

-low→ high concentration (against gradient)

-requires transport proteins & ATP

ions, glucose, amino acids, proteins

Respiratory System

gas exchange between internal & external environment

Hypotonic

-having a lower osmotic pressure

-cell swells & bursts

Pyruvate Oxidation

-starts w/ pyruvate

ends w/ Acetyl-CoA, CO2, NADH

location → mitochondria

yes, O2 (indirectly)

Isotonic

-solution with same osmotic pressure as other solution

-no net water movement

Lymphatic System

-lymph circulation

-maintains fluid balance

-fights infection

Endocytosis

transport molecules into the cell

Exocytosis

moves large molecules & waste out of cell

Endocrine System

-regulation of bodily processes through hormone production

Eukaryotic Cells

-larger

-have nucleus & organelles

-linear DNA residing in nuclesu

-membrane & ribosomes

-plants, animals, fungi

Prokaryotic Cells

-smaller

no nucleus or organelles

-circular DNA that resides in cytoplasms

-membrane & ribosomes

-bacteria, archaea, protists

Rough vs. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough → protein synthesis (has ribosomes)

Smooth → lipid storage (no ribosomes)

Animal Bodily Organization

1. Organ systems

2. organs

3. tissues

4. cells

Epithelial Tissue

-specialized in exchanging materials between cells/environment

-substances leaving/entering must cross epithelial barrier

-glands, secretion, sheets, lumen

Osmoregulation

maintains balance of water & electrolytes in its bodily fluids

Components of Neuronal Tissue

Neurons →communication through electrical signals

Glial Cells → support cells, allow neuron function

Cell

most basic unit of any organism

Endo-/Ectotherms

Endo → regulates temperature internally (warm-blooded); regulatory

Ecto → relies on external heat sources for body temperature (cold-blooded); conformers

Cytoplasm

Prokaryotes → cytosol

Eukaryotes → organelles

Neuronal Tissue

-transmit electrical impulses

-relay information

-communication, coordination, control

-brain, spinal cord, nerves

1st Two Laws of Thermodynamics

1. Law of Energy Conservation →energy can’t be created or destroyed;l only transformed

2. Law of Energy → transformation of energy increases disorder (entropy)

Hydrogen Bonds

-hydrogen atom in one molecule + another atom is another molecule

-often O or N

-not as strong as other bonds

Large Heat Capacity

-property of water

-hydrogen bonds limit molecule movement

-long time/high temp. for water to heat up

-helps to maintain body temp. (bc body is mostly water)

Non-Polar Molecules

-no charged regions

-hydrophobic (e.g. oil)

Biology

the study of living things

Hydrogenation

-chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen & other compound/element

-usually in presence of catalyst

-creation of transfats (high LDL or bad cholest.; low HDL or good cholest.)

Dependent Variable

-response created by process

-depends on independent variable

-observed & measured

Buffers

-chemicals that act to resist changes in pH

-absorb excess H+ release it if too much OH-

-help blood keep 7.4 pH for reactions to occur normally

Macromolecule

large molecules made up of smaller subunits

Carbs

-primary fuel

-majority of cell strucutre

-equal numbers of carbon atoms & H2O

DNA vs. RNA

DNA

• more stable

• deoxyribose sugar

• double stranded/helix

• T → A; G → C

  RNA

  • single stranded

  • sugar molecule has extra atom

  • ribose sugar

  • U - A; G → C

Denaturization

• disruption of protein folding

  • high heat & water

  • base/acid denaturing

  • protein loses function w/ no shape

Proton

-subatomic particle that is positively charged and in nucelus

Atomic Mass

combined mass of an atom’s protons & neutrons

Atomic Number

# of protons found in nucleus

Digestable Polysaccharides

Glucose

• glucose molecule

• energy storage in animals

Starch

• roots, tissues

• energy storage in plants

Good Solvent

-substances dissolve easily in water

-can break the ionic bonds

-helps effectively move nutrients

-property of water

Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

equally shared electrons

Peptides

Peptide Bonds

• chemical bonds formed between amino acids to link protein structures

Polypeptide

• molecular chain of many amino acids

Indigestable Polysaccharides

Chitin

• outer skeleton of insects, crustaceans

Cellulose

• plant structures; roughage, fiber; digestive track scraper

Amino Acid

organic compounds containing amino acid & carboxylic acid function (amino group, side chain(determines function), carboxyl group)

Steps for Protein Formation

1. Primary → sequence is formed

2. Secondary → folded into sheet structure

3. Tertiary → final shape w/ bridges; hydrophobic/phillic interactions

4. Quarternary → multiple sequences fold together (only in some)

Lipids

Fats

• long term energy; insulation

Sterols/oids

• regulatory molecules (e.g. cholesterol, hormones)

Phsopholipids

• form cell membrane

Waxes

• ester of alcohol and 1 fatty acid; prevent plants from losing excess water

Ionic Bonds

-when an atom completely transfers electrons

-when two opposing ions attract each other

Polysaccharide

-large #’s of simple sugars bonded together

-long -term energy

(e.g. glycogen, starch)

Tryglyceride

-ester from glycerol & 3 fatty acids

-majority of fat

-head → glycerol; tail → acids

Saturated v. Unsaturated Fats

Saturated

• hydrocarbon

• single bonds

• solid @ room temp (e.g. butter, cheese)

Unsaturated

• double bonds

• liquid @ room temp. (e.g. vegetable oil)

Enzymes

-molecules initiate/accelerate chemical reactions in our bodies

-act as catalysts

-lower activation energy

Polar Molecules

• (+) and (-) charged sides of molecule

• attracted to other polar molecules

• hydrophilic (e.g. water)

Radioactive Atoms

• released from unstable nuclei that have broken down/decomposed

• helpful w/ fossils

• damaging to DNA

Stable vs. Unstable Elements

Stable

• loner; less reactive

Unstable

• interactive; less stable

Isotopes

• atoms w/ same # of protons, but different # of neutrons

• charge is the same, mass changes

pH

-amount of H+ in a solution

-measure of acidity

Ion

-atoms that have extra or lack electrons

-lacking (+); extra (-)

pH help in humans

• stomach acid kills most ingested bacteria (low pH)

• Alka-seltzer reduces heartburn (high pH; basic)

Monosaccharides

• simplest carbs

• “simple sugars”

• 3-6 C atoms

• short-term energy storage

• (e.g. fructose, glucose, galactose)

Proteins

• only macronutrient w/ Nitrogen, some w/ sulfur

• all have C, H, & O

Covalent Bonds

• 2 atoms sharing electrons

• 2 electrons shared = single bond

• 4=double; 6=triple

Atom

• bit of matter

• cant be subdivided without losing its essential properties

• pieces of an element

Neutron

• subatomic particle

• neutral charge

• In nucleus

Experimental Group

research participants exposed to a particular treatment (“treatment group”)

Shell Capacity

1st → 2 electrons

2nd → 8 electrons

-up to 7th

Electron

• subatomic particle

• negatively charged

• orbits in outer rings around nucleus

Nucleic Acids

• macromolecules that store information

• 1. DNA
  2. RNA

3 Parts of a Nucelotide

1. phosphate group.

2. sugar molecule

3. nitrogen containing base

   1 & 2 are backbone

   3 Is A, T, C, G, U