Sociological Research Methods- chapter 2

Quantitative research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships

Qualitative research

research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and audio recordings; this type of research often tries to understand how people make sense of their world

Scientific method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting data through observation and experiment

Literature review

a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic

Hypothesis

a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena

Variables

two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related; these will be examined in the experiment

Replicability

the ability of research to be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers

Correlation

a relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal

Causation

a relationship between variables in which a change in one
directly produces a change in the other

Intervening variable

a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

Spurious correlation

the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

Deductive approach

an approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis

Inductive approach

an approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data

Ethnography

a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also, the written work that results from the study

Participant observation

a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting

Rapport

a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy

Field notes

detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing their activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis

Reflexivity

how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting

Advantages of Ethnography

an effective means of studying groups whose stories might not otherwise be told, can challenge stereotypes, and provide rich, contextual insights into social behavior.

Disadvantages of ethnography

can be time-consuming, may lead to researcher bias, and findings may not be easily generalizable to larger populations.

Representativeness

the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

Validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring

Interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents

Respondent

a participant in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information

Target population

the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize

Sample

the members of the target population who will actually be studied

Focus group

a process for interviewing a number of participants together that also allows for interaction among group members

Informed consent

a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research

Leading questions

questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way

Double-barreled questions

questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers

Life history

an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent’s entire life or some portion of it

Advantages of Interviews

allow for in-depth responses, clarification of answers, and the ability to explore complex topics through follow-up questions.

Disadvantages of Interviews

can be time-consuming, may introduce interviewer bias, and responses can be influenced by the interviewer's presence.

Surveys

research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population

Closed-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses

Likert scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

Open-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses

Negative questions

survey questions that ask respondents what they don’t think instead of what they do think

Pilot study

a small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of conducting a study on a larger scale

Probability sampling

any sampling procedure that uses randomization

Simple random sample

a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Response rate

The number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

Advantages of Surveys

provide a cost-effective way to collect data from a large group, allow for anonymity, and can be easily analyzed for statistical insights.

Disadvantages of Surveys

The drawbacks associated with using surveys, including potential bias, low response rates, and limited depth of information.

Existing sources

materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research

Unobtrusive measures

research methods that rely on existing sources and whereby the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects

Comparative historical research

a research method that examines past events and their impact on social phenomena over time, often using qualitative data.

Content analysis

a systematic technique for analyzing communication content, such as texts, images, or media, to identify patterns, themes, or biases.

Advantages of Existing Sources

These include cost-effectiveness, time savings, and access to large datasets that may not be feasible to collect directly.

Disadvantages of Existing Sources

These may include issues of data relevance, accuracy, and lack of control over the data collection process.

Experiments

formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled

Experimental group

the members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment

Control group

the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group

Independent variable

the factor that is predicted to cause change

Dependent variable

the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable

Advantages of Experiments

allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships by controlling variables and isolating the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Disadvantages of Experiments

may lack ecological validity, can be expensive, and may introduce ethical concerns.

Basic research

the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind

Applied research

the search for knowledge that can be used to create social change

Bias

an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis

Objectivity

impartiality; the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves

Reactivity

the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied

Hawthorne effect

a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself

Deception

the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals

Confidentiality

the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent

Code of ethics

ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project

Institutional review board

group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects