AP Psych Unit 6 - Learning (Myers Textbook)

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

An organism’s decreasing response to stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The event may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) ir a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most researchers today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salvation) to an unconditioned stimuli (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR)

Conditioned Response (CR)

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Acquisition

The initial learning of a stimulus-response relationship; In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response: In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

High-Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second-order conditioning)

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished/ conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar ot ky that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Discriminative Stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcement. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus, that when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcements are not punishments, it removed a punishing aversive event)

Primary Reinforcement

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Reinforcement Schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; best choice for mastering a behavior but extinction also occurs rapidly

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement (best procedure for making a behavior persit)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses

Variable-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows; can have undesirable effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, encouraging discrimination so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present and, fostering depression and low self-esteem

The Basic Rule of Shaping

When noticing people doing something right, affirming them for it to reinforce successive approximations of desired behavior

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences

Respondent Behavior

Automatic responses to some stimulus

Taste Aversion

Discovered by John Garcia; biological UR that is necessary for survival as it helps avoid poisonous or tainted foods

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake; can be destroyed by excessive rewards

Overjustification

The overuse of bribes, leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishments

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Emotion-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate a stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

Learned Helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events; leads to a vulnerability to stress and ill health

External Locus of Control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that you control your own fate

Self-Control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards; requires attention and energy but predicts good adjustment, better grades, and social success

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others. Also called social learning

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

After seeing adults hit a doll in response to anger, children modeled that behavior and learned to hit the doll when they are angry

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing others doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Theory of Mind

Brains enable empathy and the ability to infer and understand another’s mental state to further predict and explain human behavior

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior which leads to positive modeling behavior; The opposite of antisocial behavior, which when modeled elicts negative effects such as aggressiveness

Violence-Viewing Effect

“Media violence can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, nightmares, and the fear of being harmed”; Children imitate behavior, their brains stimulate the behavior, and this inner rehearsal becomes more likely to act out