AP Psych Unit 0-3

Psychodynamic Perspective

the psychological perspective that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior

Cognitive Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, and problem solving

Humanistic Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes human growth potential

Behavioral Perspective

the psychological perspective that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study.

Evolutionary Perspective

the psychological perspective that focuses on behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on psychological processes

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Sociocultural Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior and thinking

Cultural Norms

behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups

Cognitive Bias

systematic error in thinking

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

Hindsight Bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Quantitative

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

Qualitative Research

research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data

Structured Interviews

a data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order; asking the same set of standardized questions

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Representative Sample

sample that reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal probability of being selected

Convenience Sample

a sample using respondents who are convenient or readily accessible to the researcher—for example, employees, friends, or relatives

Sampling Bias

a problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Surveys

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group

Wording Effect

the effect that question phrasing and order have an effect on how people answer surveys

Self-Report Bias

systematic errors that can occur in self-report data because participants are unable or unwilling to answer accurately

Case Study

a technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Metaanalysis

statistical procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies

Correlation

a measure of the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Variables of Interest

the items or quantities that the study seeks to measure; a changing quantity that is measured

Directionality Problem

in a correlational study, the occurrence of both variables being measured around the same time, making it unclear which variable in the association came first

Third Variable Problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

Illusory Correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists

Effect Size

the magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables in a population

Regression Towards The Mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average

Outliers

sample values that lie far away from the vast majority of the other sample values

Experiment

a research method in which an one manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Independent Variable (IV)

the variable that a researcher actively manipulates; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable (DV)

the outcome that is measured by the researcher; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or variable being tested (IV)

Control Group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Placebo Group

a control group of participants who believe they are receiving treatment, but who are only receiving a placebo.

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

Single-blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group

Double-blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

Experimenter Bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

Social Desirability Bias

a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Peer Review

a process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research

Central Tendency

a measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a measure of how much scores vary around the mean

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Percentile Rank

percentage of scores falling at or below a particular value

Skewness

a distribution where frequency data is not spread evenly or normally distributed; the data is clustered at one end

Bimodal Distribution

a frequency distribution having two different values that are heavily populated

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Likert Scale

a rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviors

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

a committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology

Informed Consent

an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed Assent

participant's agreement to participate in the absence of full understanding; this commonly applies to minors

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

Anonymity

the condition of being anonymous

Deception (in research)

research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something that is done to them

Debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Confederate (in research)

undercover agents of the researcher

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Population

the entire group (population) being studied, from which samples are drawn

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups