History Power and the People

What are the eight key factors found within the major events of Power and the People?

What are the eight key factors found within the major events of Power and the People?

-Religion
-Key individuals
-Economic
-Government
-War
-Communication
-Ideas in society
-Chance

How was power assigned in medieval society and what was this system called?

-Power was assigned based on land
-The King would provide his barons with land.
-These barons would give their knights to the king in return.
-This process repeated until peasantry
-This system was called the feudal system.

What were the four goals of a Medieval King?

-Defend the people by leading the army well
-Keep the country peaceful
-Successfully deal with rebellions
-Maintain good relations with the Church and the Pope

What did King John do to anger the barons?

-King John was excommunicated by the Pope in 1209
-John lost battles in France and most importantly the English barons' homeland of Normandy
-John forced harsh scutage tax upon the barons to fund his unsuccessful campaigns

What were John's two nicknames and what did they represent?

-Soft sword-Represented his inability to win battles
-Lackland-Represented his loss of English land

When did the barons raise an army against John and where did they occupy?

-The barons occupied London on 15th June 1215

Where did the barons and John meet to discuss Magna Carta?

-Runnymede

How many clauses were in the Magna Carta?

-63 clauses

What were the 6 main clauses of the Magna Carta?

-A baron's heir shall inherit his lands on payment of £100 to the king
-No scutage tax shall be imposed on the barons without the consent of the common counsel of the realm
-No freemen shall be arrested or imprisoned without proper trial
-The English church shall be free to make its own appointments
-All merchants shall have safety whilst travelling in England, for buying and selling goods, free from evil tolls
-A group of 25 barons should monitor the king

What was the short term significance of the Magna Carta?

-King John went back on his word and Magna Carta had no immediate impact on society
-Peasants and villeins were not freemen and therefore nothing changed for them
-Only the politically powerful such as barons, the Church and merchants benefitted from Magna Carta
-It showed the king could not rule autocratically as he was now limited by barons below him

What was the long term significance of the Magna Carta

-First Barons' War
--Siege of Rochester 1215-40 pigs used to collapse castle walls
--Barons were supported by the French
--King John lost the war as he died in October 1216
-Magna Carta introduced the idea that the king had to follow a set of rules
-Other important documents such as the America Declaration of Independence were inspired by the Magna Carta
-The Magna Carta was the first step to English democracy

What were King Henry III's problems?

-Henry III was a pious king who followed Pope Innocent IV and fought in Sicily for him
--To fight such wars he needed 3x his yearly income (more tax)
--Henry was at risk of being excommunicated if he didn't pay
-Henry led unsuccessful campaigns in France
--He sent Simon de Montfort (his brother-in-law) to France where he won land in Gascony
--Henry believed de Montfort was too harsh and sent his son Edward to keep control of the area instead
-Henry's French family had jobs in the English court
-Italian clergy were given top jobs in the Church

What was made as a result of these problems and when was it made?

-In 1258, Simon de Montfort called the Great Council
-Henry III was forced to sign the Provisions of Oxford

What were the 5 terms of this agreement?

-A council of 15 barons would monitor the king elected by 24 men
--12 selected by the king and 12 selected by the barons
-Foreign members of the royal household would be banished
- Castles would be held by Englishmen
-Each county would have a sheriff
-Taxes would be decided locally

What were the Provisions of Westminster for and when were they signed?

-In 1259, the Provisions of Westminster were signed
-These provisions reformed local government
-Gave more power to the less wealthy in society

When and where did de Montfort capture Henry in the Second Barons' war?

-At the battle of Lewes in 1264

What happened during de Montfort's rule?

-Simon de Montfort created a council of nine of his closest friends and allies
-De Montfort reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Provisions of Oxford
-Barons considered de Montfort too autocratic
-De Montfort called a meeting of the Great Council in 1265
--Burgesses and knights were present representing the peasantry (early form of house of commons)

What ended de Montfort's rule?

-The barons fought de Montfort led by Prince Edward
At the Battle of Evesham, 1265, de Montfort fell from his horse
-His body was cut into pieces and sent across the country

What was the short term significance of the origins of Parliament?

-Henry ruled until 1272, never calling the Great Council
-Simon de Montfort showed the peasantry they could have a voice through his Great Council meeting
-The king was once again limited greatly compared to their typical autocratic rule

What was the long term significance of the origins of Parliament?

-In 1295 Edward called the Model Parliament
--Invited aristocrats and elected commoners were present
-Model Parliament mirrors modern day parliament
-Model Parliament similar to the queen or king in present day being just a figurehead
--No direct influence in government

What were the causes of the Peasants' Revolt?

-Black death killed 1/3 of peasant population
--Labour shortage should've allowed for better wages
-Statute of Laborers 1351, stopped wages from rising
-Many priests exploited peasants
--Forced to pay for pardons for their sins
-Poll tax was used excessively to fund unsuccessful campaigns in the Hundred Years War
--By 1380, everyone over the age of 15 had to pay four groats per year to the king (4x more than previous year)
-John Ball preached ideas of social equality and was imprisoned

When did the Peasants' Revolt start and what happened?

1381:
-On 30th May peasants refuse to pay poll tax and threaten to kill tax collector
-On 2nd June Chief Justice is threatened whilst collecting poll tax and tax collector clerks are beheaded

Who did the peasants appoint as their leader and who did they free?

-Wat Tyler was made the Peasants' Revolt leader on 7th June
-John Ball was freed on the same day
-Rochester Castle was stormed and tax records burnt

When did the peasants enter London and what did they do?

-Peasants entered London on 13th June
-Burnt palaces and killed supporters of the king

When did Wat Tyler meet the king and what happened whilst he made his demands?

-On 14th June Wat Tyler met with King Richard II
-Whilst they met, the Archbishop of Canterbury was killed

What were the Peasants' demands?

-All villeins to be made freemen
-Full change to the system of law
-Church lands to be given to the people
-All bishops except one to be removed

What was the short term significance of the Peasants' Revolt?

-Richard went back on his word
--Wat Tyler and John Ball were executed and their heads were placed on pikes on London Bridge
-Richard was forced to consolidate his power as he realised what scale the peasants could revolt against him with
--More than 60000 peasants were involved

What was the long term significance of the Peasants' Revolt?

-Poll Tax was never repeated until 1990 in England
-The peasants' wages began to rise due to labour shortages
-Some peasants were able to buy their own land due to unused land after the Black Death
-Within 100 years peasants and villeins were freemen

Who was the main religious reformer in Europe in the 1500s and what did he criticise?

-Martin Luther
-He criticised the church selling indulgences and the Bible being in Latin rather than the language of the country

When did Henry pass the Act of Supremacy and what did it state?

-1534
-It stated that Henry VIII was the head of the English church

Why did Henry pass the Act of Supremacy?

-Henry wished to dissolve the monarchies as they held much wealth and 25% of English land at the time
-Henry wished to get a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and couldn't do so under the authority of the Pope

How were monasteries dissolved?

-Via Valor Ecclesiasticus which was an evaluation system made to fail every monastery
-This would allow Henry to obtain the annual income of the English church which was double that of the king at £200000

What were four things the English people were unhappy with Henry VIII for?

-Many people agree with the Pope as the head of the church and disagree with Henry's new church of England
-Thomas Cromwell was Henry's main advisor who had helped dissolve the monasteries and was hated by landowners
--Furthermore, Cromwell was the son of a blacksmith making him hated by the barons and nobles
-Supporters of Catherine of Aragon fell out of favour after the divorce losing their influence over land
-Prices continued to rise under Henry VIII and his advisors were blamed

When and where did a rebellion occur as a result? What was the rebellion called and who led it?

-In 1536 a rebellions broke out in Yorkshire
-The Pilgrimage of Grace led by Robert Aske

What were the demands of the rebels?

-Restore the monasteries
-Recognise the Pope as the head of the church
-Dismiss Cromwell and other ministers who were unpopular

What was the ratio of the Duke of Norfolk's men to the pilgrims? What date was this and where was it?

-8000:30000
-27th October 1536
-Doncaster Bridge

Once Henry had agreed to the terms of rebels, what did he do?

-Began strengthening his garrison in the North
-Cancelled the pardons of the rebels
-In January 1537, castles in Hull, Beverley and Scarborough were attacked
-Lead to Henry attacking another rebellion in Carlisle and brutally suppressed them with hangings

What was the short term significance of the Pilgrimage of Grace?

-Failed to stop dissolution of monasteries
-In 1539 many larger monasteries were dissolved
-Cromwell had Robert Aske executed
-Henry strengthened the Council of the North

What was the long term significance of the Pilgrimage of Grace?

-The economy improved with the money from the monasteries and Henry was able to develop the Royal Navy
-No more rebellions took place during Henry's reign
-Cromwell fell out of Henry's favour and was executed in 1540
-Monarchs were shown they could no longer approach religion with carelessness
-Would lead to the religious divide in England between puritans, catholics and protestants

What were the causes of the English Civil War?

-Charles believed in the divine right of kings
-Charles attempted to give a new prayer book to the Scottish people leading to them forming an army
-Charles ruled without parliament from 1629-1640
-Charles taxed everybody with Ship Money in 1637
-Parliament refused to give Charles money to fight the Scots in April 1640

When and where did the English Civil War start?

-Nottingham in August 1642

What were the two sides called in the English Civil War?

-Cavaliers (Royalists)
-Roundheads (Parliamentarians)

What did Oliver Cromwell create and why was it unique?

-Cromwell created the New Model Army
-Cromwell recruited men based on their ability not privilege
-Men had to follow a strict puritan code making the army more effective in action

What was the turning point of the English Civil War?

-Battle of Naseby in 1645
-Royalist army: 9000 men
-New Model Army: 14000 men
-Royalist army defeat leading to king's loss of civil war

What was the short term significance of the English Civil War?

-The Second Civil War took place in 1648 where the Scots were defeated by Parliament at the Battle of Preston
-Charles was the first king to be put on trial and executed
-Parliament had shown their power over the king

What was the long term significance of the English Civil War?

-England became the Commonwealth from 1649-1660
-Oliver Cromwell made England a puritan country banning many leisure activities and even Christmas
--Appointed Major General to 11 districts he created to strictly rule England
-Republic was largely viewed as unenjoyable from the population and King Charles II was brought back in 1660
-Religious freedom was established in England especially for Jews helping to pave the way for freedom of religion
-Taxation was reorganised to make it more efficient for everyone

What were the causes of the American Revolution?

-Americans had to pay for the British army's protection
- The Navigation Acts were passed in 1651 forcing America to trade only with Britain
-Stamp tax forced tax on all American documents
-No representation was given to the Americans
-Borders of America were decided for them between Britain and the Native people
-1770 Boston Massacre where British soldiers killed anti-British colonists
-1773 Boston Tea Party where colonists poured tea into Boston harbour in protest of the recent tea tax

What battle was the war won at and how did it happen?

-Yorktown in 1781
-The Americans had French support and 3000 extra soldiers
-French naval blockades allowed for the surrender of the British

How many colonies were there?

13

What was the short term significance of the American Revolution?

-Britain's global power had been challenged
-Countries being ruled as an idea was additionally challenged
-British and French relations worsened
-Slavery and discrimination of Native Americans still existed

What was the long term significance of the American Revolution?

-America formed a constitution with a Congress and a President
-The French Revolution occurred where the King Louis XVI was executed
-The French Revolution inspired the working class in Britain to rise up
-By the 20th century America became a global superpower
-India became the 'jewel in the crown' of the British empire

What were some of the problems with Britain's electoral system in the 19th century?

-The king and major landowners controlled the country
-Rotten boroughs had no inhabitants and still sent 2 MPs to parliament
-Workers in towns and cities had no representation
-There was no standard property qualification
-There was no secret ballot
-Women could not vote

What two main events fall underneath the extension of the franchise?

-Great Reform Act
-Chartism

What led to the Great Reform Act?

-The Peterloo Massacre in 1819 when 60000 workers in Manchester went to St Peter's Field
--They did so to hear Henry Hunt speak of government reform
--The local government panicked and killed 15 whilst injuring 600
-Thomas Attwood formed the Birmingham Political Unions of the Lower and Middle Classes of People in 1829
--This was copied across the country
-In the 1830 election, the Whig party led by Earl Grey was more open to reform and so was William IV

How was the Great Reform Act brought into power?

-Earl Grey tried three times to pass laws for a reform act
-The House of Lords refused these as they did not want to give representation to the lower classes
-On the third attempt, Early Grey threatened replacement of Lords with the support of the king and he was successful

What were the five main points of the Great Reform Act?

-56 small locations lose the right to elect MPs
-30 smaller towns lose one MP
-London and other large settlements are given more MPs
-People who earn over £150 can vote
-Voters increase from 435000 to 642000

What was the short term significance of the Great Reform Act?

-Merchants and industrialists gained more representation
-Rotten boroughs were removed
-Most working class people didn't earn enough to vote
-No secret ballot allowed for intimidation and bribery in votes

What was the long term significance of the Great Reform Act?

-Opened up the idea of representation to the lower classes
-Introduced limitations on the power of the king and landowners
--Proved the potential of such limitations

What were the causes of Chartism?

-Most workers in the new urban areas lived in bad conditions
-Bad harvests in the 1830s led to starvation
-Skilled workers were not needed due to new machines
-The Poor Law of 1834 sent people in poverty to dreaded workhouses
-There was no secret ballot neither a vote for the working class

What were the aims of Chartism and when were they achieved?

-Wages for MPs (1872)
-Secret Ballot (1872)
-Equal-sized constituencies (1884)
-No property qualifications for voting (1918)
-Votes for all men (1918)
-An election every year (Never)

How was Chartism pursued physically?

Feargus O'Connor:
-Called for violence after the rejection of the 1842 petition
-Encouraged workers to destroy machinery
-Called for a general strike and a republic
-Established Radical Newspaper called Northern Star

How was Chartism pursued morally?

William Lovett:
-First two petition sent to parliament in 1839 and 1842 were rejected
-Encouraged temperance among members to show discipline and worthiness of the vote
-Edited a newspaper: The Chartist

What brought an end to Chartism?

-The Third Petition in 1848
-Fewer than 50000 supporters of O'Connor met on 10th April
-They marched on London however troops and thousands of policemen were ready to stop them
-The petition was said to have 5 million signatures but actually only had 2 million whilst many names were forged
-This led to a complete collapse of Chartism

What was the short term significance of Chartism?

-Chartism was dissolved due to a lack of stable leadership
-Standard of living began to increase during the 1850s
-Alternative working class movements grew

What was the long term significance of Chartism?

-5 of 6 Chartist goals were met in the long term (dates listed in previous flashcard)
-Separate campaigns inspired by Chartism led to further electoral campaigns
-Working class was given representation

What were the Corn Laws?

-Rich British landowners wished to keep a monopoly on corn after the Napoleonic wars had ended
-In 1815, the Corn Laws were introduced preventing cheap French wheat from being imported
-This increased the price of British corn and led to the upper classes being paid more whilst the working class starved

Why did people oppose the Corn Laws?

-Corn Laws were unfair to the poor as the price of basic food was too high
-Cheap wheat could lower living costs
-People couldn't afford other goods like meat
-People couldn't buy industrial goods
-Improved trade with other countries would help to secure peace

When was the Anti-Corn Law League created, who ran it and what did they do to increase its prominence?

-In 1838 the Anti-Corn Law League was created
-It was created by Richard Cobden and John Bright
-Both men were good orators: Would give speeches, create pamphlets and publish newspaper articles
--Used railways to travel fast and sent pamphlets through the penny post to reach ever eligible voter

What led to the Corn Laws being repealed?

-The new Prime Minister (Robert Peel) saw the benefit of free trade and supported the League
-A famine in Ireland in the early 1840s forced the country into starvation
--The same fate hung over England and Scotland in 1846
-Robert Peel repealed the Corn Laws in 1846

What was the short term significance of the Anti-Corn Law League?

-The British population were brought into a famine
-The standard of living rose as food became more available
-Robert Peel resigned as a result of opposition from his party
-British farmers and landowners made profits as the population grew and bought more product

What was the long term significance of the Anti-Corn Law League?

-The upper class saw they were no longer able to be inconsiderate of the working class's views
-The standard of living gradually increased over time
-The working class gained more income
-Influence of landowning class was challenged

What national opposition was there to the Slave Trade?

-Moral/religious opposition to owning or harming humans
--1/3 of slaves died during their transport
-William Wilberforce was an MP who spoke for abolition
--Presented an abolition petition in 1797
-Thomas Clarkson presented his drawings and pamphlets about conditions on slave ships
-Olaudah Equiano was a former slave who wrote a book about his terrible experience
-Granville Sharp argued in Law Courts to free slaves

What international opposition was there to the Slave Trade?

-Maroon slaves escaped from their Jamaican plantation in 1655 and escaped to freedom
-Inspired by French Revolution slaves of St Dominique rebelled and took the island abolishing slavery in 1804

What was the short term significance of the abolition of the Slave Trade?

-The Slave Trade was abolished in 1807
--Slaves could no longer be taken or sold
-The landowning class lost much of their revenue from slavery

What was the long term significance of the abolition of the Slave Trade?

-The 1833 Act instantly freed slaves under the age of six
--The rest of slaves were freed after four more years
-Despite the removal of slavery and the introduction of equality living quality did not improve for former slaves
-Smuggling became widespread
-Introduced the idea of an equal society not based on uncontrollable aspects

Why was factory reform needed after 1750?

-The Industrial Revolution saw a shift into factories for manufacturing
-Factories and coal mines were had dangerous conditions
-Children as young as 4 worked in coal mines
-Working hours were long and accidents were common

What was done to encourage this reform?

-Michael Sadler MP led the 10-hour movement for shorter work days
-Robert Owen (Mill Owner) introduced an 8 hour day in 1810
--Opened a school at his New Lanark factory in 1816
--Created social areas for his workers to use during free time
-Edwin Chadwick wrote a report linking sanitation to epidemics like cholera
--Reported on the causes of poverty

What was the short term significance of the factory reforms?

Factory Act of 1833
-No children under nine could work in factories
-Children aged 9-13 could work only 9 hours a day
-Children aged 13-18 could work no more than 69 hours a week
-Children under 13 had to attend school for 2 hours a day
-Four inspector were appointed to check these rules were carried out
Mines Act of 1842
-Women and children under 10 could not work in mines
-No child under the age of 15 could be in charge of winding machines

What was the long term significance of the factory reforms?

-The working class realised these reforms were not enough
-The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 forced poorer people into workhouses
-The working class needed more rights and formed trade unions as a result
-Helped inspire more abolition in slavery as the struggles of labour were presented

Why were trade unions created?

-Wage competition was non-existent as there was a shortage of labour
-This made it easier to hire a new worker rather than increasing wages
-New technology removed the need for skilled workers
-The 1825 Combination Act disallowed the use of intimidation or picketing by workers to get more rights

What were examples of trade unions?

Luddites:
-Broke machinery used for industrial manufacturing
-Struggled due to lack of organisation
Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (GNCTU):
-Set up in 1833 by Robert Owen
-Had 500000 members
-Struggled due to conflicts between workers

What was an example of a failure of trade unions and what did it lead to the formation of?

The Tolpuddle Martyrs:
-Six farmers led by George Loveless swore an illegal oath to keep their trade union a secret
-This was done as a result of shortage of labourers
-The six men were arrested and sent to Australia
-This marked the failure of old trade unions leading to the formation of New Model Unions and New Unionism

What was the first New Model Union and why was it more successful?

-In 1851 the Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE) was created
-These men were highly skilled
-They could afford to pay subscriptions allowing for sick pay and other benefits
-They did not wish to destroy their working structure
-They negotiated instead of striking
-This was only for the more skilled affluent workers however

What were the two main examples of New Unionism?

Matchgirls' Strike:
-Led in 1888 by females who made matches
-Conditions in the factory were poor and many became ill from poisoning by the chemicals in the matches
-This caused 'Phossy Jaw'
-Pay was additionally poor and fined frequently
-With the help of journalist: Annie Bessant who published 'White Slaves of London' a boycott took place
-Matches were not made by Bryant and May forcing them to improve conditions

Dockers' Strike:
-Led by Ben Tillet in 1889
-Wanted a pay increase from 5 pence to 6 pence an hour
-Wanted more pay for overtime
-Wanted guaranteed 4 hours of work a day
-Went on strike and marched through London carrying fish heads and rotten vegetables
-Picketed at the gates of the London docks
-Forced their conditions to be met

What was the short term significance of worker's movements?

-The working class now could ask for better salaries
-The factory owners had to listen to their workers' demands
-The standard of living improved and so did the standard of work
-Picketing was no longer restricted

What was the long term significance of worker's movements?

-Trade unions were centred around the working class
-Trade unions were made to be more affordable for the working class
-Trade unions are still present in modern day society and help to improve workers' rights

What was the primary Suffragist group and what did they do?

National Unions of women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS):
-Created by Millicent Fawcett in 1897
-Lobbying MPs
-Speaking publicly
-Creating petitions
-Distributing pamphlets

What was the primary Suffragette group and what did they do?

Women's Social and Political Union:
-Created by Emmeline Pankhurst in 1903
-Heckled MPs during speeches
-Demonstrated outside the House of Commons
-Chained themselves to rails
-1912 stone throwing campaign: Over 200 arrested
-Arson attacks and blowing up buildings

What major events helped the Suffragettes?

The Death of Emily Wilding Davison:
-Took place in 1913 at Epsom Derby
-Davison ran onto the track in front of the king's horse
-Davison was regarded as a martyr and inspired women
WW1:
-Women ran family businesses during the war showing they could make clear headed decisions
-Women worked in munitions factories allowing Britain to succeed in the war and showing their capability
-Women had worked during the war and still taken care of their homes and children

How did the government respond to the Suffragettes?

The 1913 Cat and Mouse Act:
-Hunger striking became common in prison amongst Suffragettes
-This allowed for women on the brink of starvation to be released then re-arrested when in better health
-This seemed to prolong the Suffragettes suffering

What was the short term significance of the suffrage movement?

-In 1918, the Representation of the People Act allowed all men over 21 to vote
-This act only allowed women over 30 with property qualifications to vote
-In 1928 all British women were given the right to vote

What was the long term significance of the suffrage movement?

-In the 1960s the Women's Movement was born
-This movement demanded equal gender pay
-More women in higher education
-24-hour child care
-Free contraception and abortion on demand
-In 1969 the Divorce Reform Act was passed allowing women to divorce their husbands
-In 1970 the Equal Pay Act gave women the right to be paid the same as men for the same work
-In 1975 the Sex Discrimination Act gave women rights and protecting in the workplace
-To the modern day there is still gender inequality however

What caused the General Strike of 1926?

-During WW1, Britain's industrial output had been high as many people had worked in sectors such as coal
-This caused Britain's mines to be nationalised but then returned to private owners afterwards
-After 1918 there was a fall in demand for coal and workers lost their jobs to closed mines or machinery
-British coal mines could not compete with mines in countries like the USA and Germany which had modern equipment and lower costs
-April 1921: Mine owners announced longer working hours but a drop in wages however the worker's failed to effectively strike due to no financial backing
-The government subsidy used to pay the workers ran out in April 1926

What were the actions of the TUC?

TUC Actions:
-Strikers travelled to picket other industries
-Strikers clashed violently with police
-The British Worker was a newspaper used to explain reasons for the strike
-Funds were set up to feed the families of strikers extending the duration of the strike

How did the government respond?

-The army and university students took over essential jobs
-The British Gazette newspaper was used as propaganda to turn the public against the strike
-The army stopped violent clashes between workers and the government

What was the short term significance of the General Strike?

-The government won as the unions ran out of money and were not supported by the Labour Party
-The Trade Disputes Act and Trade Unions Act was passed in 1927 preventing unions joining together to strike or paying funds to a political party
-Miners had to return to work for lower wages and longer hours

What was the long term significance of the General Strike?

-After WW2, most key industries were nationalised
-Trade union membership increases when the Labour government amended the previous Trades Disputes and Trades Unions Acts
-In 1974 a new Labour government brought in a social contract securing regular wage increases
-By the 1980s a new Conservative government had limited the power of trade unions and effectively brought them under control of the government

What caused a rise in immigration to Britain after WW2?

-Britain needed to rebuild after the war and wanted to do so cheaply so considered the choice of migrant workers
-The 1948 British Nationality Act gave all citizens of countries within the Commonwealth British citizenship
-Recruitment fairs were set up in countries like Jamaica
-Interest free-loans were given to allow more immigrants to afford the trip

What was the start point of this immigration?

-The arrival of the SS Windrush carrying 492 people from the Caribbean
-It arrived in June 1948

How were immigrants typically treated?

Social:
-Faced segregation and violence from groups of young white men
Employment:
-Forced to do low paid and unskilled work
-Doctors from the Indian subcontinent worked in the NHS
-Asian immigrants started their own businesses in their communities
Housing:
-'White flight' as people did not wish to live around migrants
-Many landlords and housing associations prevented Black and Asian people from renting their houses