General Psychology Module 7

Development:

Refers to organisms’ progressive change.

Nature Versus Nuture:

The extent to which human biology influences thought and behavior and the extent to which environmental influences, such as family and culture, influence behavior.

Nature:

Refers to the genetic and biological disposition of individuals.

Nurture:

Refers to the environmental influences on individuals, such as friends, family, and culture.

Lifespan:

Human change across the lifespan, from conception to death. Each period of life is considered to be important.

Cross-sectional research:

Take a cross-section, or group, of people at one period of time. Example: A group of four-year-old children as they enter preschool.

Longitudinal Studies:

Examine people over a period of time. Example: A study examines 10 year old children, and then has them come in to the lab annually until they graduate high school.

What are pros of Cross-Sectional?

Time-efficient for researchers and participants and attrition less likely to be an issue.

*Attrition has to do with something being reduced; in this case, it refers to people dropping out of the study.

What are the cons of Cross-Sectional?

Does not assess growth over time and fewer timepoints, so possibly less information collected.

What are pros of Longitudinal?

Is able to assess growth over time and often able to obtain detailed information across many timepoints.

What are the cons of Longitudinal?

Can be time-consuming to conduct and people often drop out of the study over time. Change is not always due to growth but can be due to other things, like cohort effects.

Growth:

Physical process of development. This includes growing taller in observable ways, such as when a child goes through a growth spurt.

Maturation:

Can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive. Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and more advanced. For example, our brains don’t grow in size across the lifespan, but they do mature (due to physical changes occurring within the brain) across childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, we may speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement in emotional regulation is a good example of emotional maturation.

Aging:

The process of growing older. We would typically use this term for adults. While children technically are getting older as well, we wouldn’t use the term “aging” to refer to a child.

Germinal:

Takes place during the first two weeks after conception, when the zygote is created and attaches to the uterine wall.

Embryonic:

2-8 weeks after conception, layers of cells are formed. These layers will develop into organs and support systems for cells. The inner layer of cells develops into the respiratory and digestive systems, while the outer layer becomes the nervous system and sensory systems.

Fetal:

Two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. Major growth and development takes place during this period.

Teratogen:

IS any agent that can cause a birth defect during prenatal development. Teratogens include drugs and medications, maternal illnesses, chemicals, x-rays, maternal stress and maternal malnutrition.

Ultrasound:

Uses sound waves to create an image of the baby. It can detect some structural birth defects in the brain and spinal cord.

Amniocentesis:

Involves inserting a needle through the abdominal wall to take a sample of amniotic fluid.

Chorionic villus sampling:

Involves taking a sample of chorionic villi, or hair-like projections on the placenta. While this sample is not as informative as a sample of amniotic fluid, it can be procured much earlier in the pregnancy. Risks are comparable to that of amniocentesis.

Infancy:

Typically described as the first two years of life.

Cephalocaudal development:

Proceeds from top (“ceph” refers to the head) to bottom (“caudal” refers to the tail). This means that infant growth starts with the skull and brain and then proceeds downward from there. This is the initial infant growth pattern, and this can be seen in the rapid and substantial brain growth that occurs during this time period, as well as the disproportionately large size of infant skulls compared to the rest of their bodies!

Proximodistal Development:

Proceeds from near (“proximo”) to far (“distal”), or from the trunk to the limbs. This pattern can be seen in gross motor skills, or the general ability to move developing first due to development of the muscles in the trunk and arms, followed by fine motor, which involves more refined movement, using the hands and fingers.

Pruning:

Infant brains have far more synaptic connections than they need. The used connections are strengthened and stay, and the unneeded ones are lost.

Critical Periods:

If we don’t learn the information within a specific span of time, our brains won’t develop in the ways that they should.

Gross Motor Skills:

Involve coordinating and controlling large muscles so that you can walk and run.

By age 4:

Children can skip on one foot, use child scissors, and throw a ball.

By age 5:

Children can use a scooter and write basic letters.

By age 7:

Children can tie shoelaces and jump rope.

By age 9:

Children can bat a ball and roll a ball.

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone):

Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles as well as aids sperm production.

LH (Luteinizing Hormone):

Triggers production of sex hormones, androgens and estrogens, into the bloodstream.

Menarche:

First menstrual period.

Myelin:

Is a fatty sheath that covers neurons and speeds up (essentially lubricates) the conduction of messages.

Menopause:

Menopause is defined as going 12 months without menstruation.

Perimenopause:

Estrogen fluctuations begin and menstruation cycles begin to change.

Cognitive Development:

Refers to the changes in thinking that occur across the lifespan.

Sensorimotor Stage:

(From birth to age 2). Is the stage in which infants learn about the world by interacting with it- by touching and tasting, for instance. Thus, this is a simple form of thought; infants must physically interact with something in order to think about it.

Object Permanence:

The idea that objects still exist even if you can’t see them. A toy doesn’t not disappear magically if you hide it behind your back. You cannot play peek-a-boo with a newborn because hidden objects are “out of sight, out of mind”.

Schema:

Refers to a mental representation of something.

Assimilation:

Involves changing new information to fit what you already know. To assimilate something means to change it to match whatever it is joining. With assimilation, the underlying schema isn’t changed; the new information is. Example: Assimilation of food involves chewing it up and digesting it. The food is changed and assimilated.

Accommodation:

The child accommodates her schema to fit the new information. If you’ve ever learned something that changed your view of the world, that would be an example of accommodation. You’ve accommodated yourself and adapted in order to make sense of the new information.

Operations:

Refer to mental activities.

Pre-Operational Stage:

A stage in which young children are developing their thinking abilities; however, as they gain more abilities, they also make many mistakes. These mistakes have to do with errors in logic as well as trouble with mental representation. That is, while preoperational children understand object permanence, they still may struggle with the use of symbols. Thus, the term, pre-operational.

Concrete Operational Stage:

Ages 7-11. In this stage, children think more logically and sequentially. They can conserve substances in their minds.

Formal Operational Stage:

Ages 12+. Characterized by abstract and scientific reasoning.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning:

This is a very scientific form of thinking that involves considering hypotheses and then testing them.

Who stated that there is a biologically organized structure in the brain that is programmed with the rudimentary mechanics of grammar?

Noam Chomsky.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD):

Biologically organized structure in the brain that is programmed with the rudimentary mechanics of grammar.

Overregularization:

Which involves over-applying a rule. A child who says, “He goed there” is exhibiting overregularization as she tries to speak in past tense.

Trust Vs. Mistrust:

Infants face this crisis. If infants have loving caregivers who supply safety and security for the infant, the baby will develop a sense of trust in them. If, however, the infant’s life is chaotic and lacks reliable caregivers, the infant may develop a mistrustful outlook toward people.

Toddlers:

Autonomy versus self-doubt.

Children:

Initiative versus guilt.

Pre-adolescents:

Competence versus inferiority.

Who is largely responsible for creating the phrase “identity crisis”?

Erikson.

Early Adulthood:

Intimacy versus isolation.

Middle Age:

Generativity versus stagnation.

Late Adulthood:

Ego integrity versus despair.

Authoritarian Parents:

Are strong disciplinarians who do not show much affection to their children. They do not permit their children to question their authority. Thus, high demandingness and low responsiveness.

Authoritative Parents:

Are also strong disciplinarians, who balance discipline with affection and communication. Thus, moderate to high demandingness and moderate to high responsiveness. This is thought to be the best parenting style, and research indicates that children from authoritative families tend to show the best outcomes in terms of psychological and school functioning.

Permissive Parents:

Are lax on discipline, but they shower their children with affection. Therefore, low demandingness and high responsiveness. While this style may be acceptable for an easy child with few problem behaviors, some kids growing up in permissive families turn out to be aggressive with poor impulse control.

Neglectful Parents:

Are neither affectionate nor strong on discipline. They are low on demandingness as well as responsiveness. Neglect is a form of child maltreatment, and neglectful parents fail to monitor their children or provide necessary support.