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Meiosis

Two nuclear divisions that result in haploid gametes from diploid cells.

Homologous Recombination

Exchange of DNA between non-sister chromatids during meiosis.

Autosomal Dominant

Only one copy of a mutant allele is needed to express the trait.

Penetrance

Proportion of individuals with a mutation who exhibit symptoms.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Model that describes the frequency of alleles in a non-evolving population.

Heritability

Proportion of variance in a trait attributed to genetic factors.

Karyotype

The number, size, and shape of chromosomes in a somatic cell arranged systematically.

Aneuploidy

Abnormal number of a specific chromosome (e.g., monosomy, trisomy).

Fragile X Syndrome

An X-linked dominant condition leading to mental retardation due to FMR1 gene expansion.

De Novo Mutations

Mutations that occur for the first time in a germ cell or zygote, not inherited from parents.

Polygenic Traits

Traits influenced by multiple genes.

Genetic Mapping

Determining the location of genes on chromosomes.

Twin Studies

Used to estimate heritability by comparing traits in identical vs. fraternal twins.

Cancer Genetics

Study of genetic mutations that lead to cancer.

Chimerism

Occurrence when individuals have differing chromosomal compositions from multiple zygotes.

Mitochondrially Encoded Diseases

Diseases caused by mutations in the mitochondrial DNA, typically inherited matrilineally.

Translocation

Joining segments from different chromosomes, can lead to genetic disorders.

Gene Therapy

Experimental technique to treat genetic disorders by correcting defective genes.

X-linked Inheritance

Inheritance pattern where alleles located on the X chromosome affect males more than females.

Mosaicism

Presence of two or more genetically different cell lines in the same individual.

X-linked Inheritance

Inheritance pattern where alleles located on the X chromosome affect males more than females due to males having only one X chromosome.

Regulation in Biology

The process by which biological systems maintain stability and ensure proper function under various conditions.

Chromosome

A thread-like structure made of DNA, carrying genetic information.

Diploid

Cells containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Haploid

Cells that contain only one set of chromosomes.

Gamete

A reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that carries half the genetic information.

Phenotype

Observable physical characteristics of an organism due to the genotype.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can affect genetic information.

Allele

Different forms of a gene that exist at a specific locus on a chromosome.

Recessive

An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present.

Dominant

An allele that expresses its trait even in the presence of a recessive allele.

Phenotypic Plasticity

The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to environmental conditions.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA.

RNA Splicing

The process of removing introns from RNA and joining exons together.

Oncogene

A mutated gene that has the potential to cause cancer.

Tumor Suppressor Gene

A gene that regulates cell division and prevents tumor formation.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the DNA sequence.

Sex-linked Trait

A trait associated with a gene that is located on a sex chromosome.

Pleitropy

A single gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.

Genetic Drift

Random fluctuations in allele frequencies in a population.

Gene Flow

Transfer of genetic material between populations through migration.

Founder Effect

Reduced genetic diversity when a population is established by a small number of individuals.

Population Bottleneck

A drastic reduction in population size that reduces genetic diversity.

Balanced Polymorphism

When multiple phenotypes are maintained in a population due to selective pressures.

Incomplete Dominance

A genetic situation where one allele does not completely dominate another, resulting in a third phenotype.

Codominance

A genetic situation where both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed.

Biotechnology

The use of biological processes for industrial and other practical applications.

CRISPR

A gene-editing technology that allows for precise modifications to DNA.

Gene Sequencing

The process of determining the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.

RNA Interference

A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression.

Genomic Imprinting

A genetic phenomenon by which certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner.

Humoral Immunity

Immune response that involves antibodies produced by B cells.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of phagocytes and cytotoxic T cells.

Chromatid

One half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

Chromatin

Complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus.

Histones

Proteins that package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

Nucleosome

A structural unit of chromatin consisting of a segment of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.

DNA Replication

The process of making a copy of DNA prior to cell division.

Telomeres

Repetitive nucleotide sequences that protect the ends of chromosomes from deterioration.

RNA Polymerase

The enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

Promoter

A DNA sequence that initiates transcription of a gene.

Transcription factor

A protein that regulates the transcription of specific genes by binding to nearby DNA.

Ribosome

A cellular structure that synthesizes proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA).

EcoRI

A restriction enzyme used to cut DNA at specific sequences, commonly used in genetic engineering.

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.

Gene Cloning

The process of making multiple copies of a specific gene.

Genetic Transformation

The process by which a cell changes its genetic makeup by taking in DNA from its environment.

DNA Ligase

An enzyme that connects the two ends of DNA fragments together during replication and repair.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, which folds into functional proteins.

Protein Folding

The process by which a protein achieves its functional three-dimensional structure.

Signal Transduction

The process by which a cell responds to external signals via a series of molecular events.

Antigen

A substance that induces an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies.

Antibody

A protein produced by B cells that binds to a specific antigen to neutralize it.

Vaccination

Administration of a vaccine to stimulate an immune response against a specific pathogen.

Immunoglobulin

Any of a class of proteins that function as antibodies in the immune response.

Pathogen

Microorganisms that cause disease, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

Cell Signaling

The communication process that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.

Oncogenes

Genes that have the potential to cause cancer, often due to mutations.

Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that can become oncogenes due to mutations or increased expression.

Cell Cycle

The series of phases that a cell goes through to divide and produce two daughter cells.

Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares for division, including DNA replication.

Mitotic Phase

The part of the cell cycle when the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm into two new cells.

Cytokinesis

The physical process of cell division that separates the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells.

Circulating Tumor DNA (ctDNA)

Fragments of DNA shed by tumors into the bloodstream, used for non-invasive cancer detection.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

A variation in a single nucleotide that occurs at a specific position in the genome.

Metastasis

The process by which cancer spreads from the primary site to other parts of the body.

Therapeutic Gene Editing

The use of technologies like CRISPR to alter genes to treat or prevent diseases.

Biomarker

A biological molecule found in blood, other bodily fluids, or tissues, indicative of a condition or disease.

Nutrigenomics

The study of the interaction between nutrition and genes and how they affect health.

Epigenetic Marks

Chemical modifications to DNA or histones that regulate gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.

Cell Differentiation

The process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells capable of giving rise to various cell types and have the potential to regenerate tissues.

Cell Culture

The process of growing cells under controlled conditions, typically outside their natural environment.

Gene Expression

The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products like proteins.

Transgenic Organism

An organism that has been genetically modified to contain a gene from another species.

Synthetic Biology

An interdisciplinary branch of biology that combines elements of biology and engineering to design and construct new biological parts.

Microbiome

The collection of microorganisms living in a particular environment, including the human body.