CIVI BRIT L3S5

When did the Beveridge report take place and what was its purpose ?

When did the Beveridge report take place and what was its purpose ?

10th June 1941 : Sir William Beveridge → soc secu from the cradle to the grave = the 5 evils : want (poverty), disease, ignorance (education), squalor and idleness.

NHS for unemployment, widows, retirement, old age pensions.

Churchill → utopian yet accepted its basis but too expensive.

When were the first general elections in 9 years and who won ?

July 1945 : cons party optimistic thanks to Churchill’s charisma → didn’t put forward policies + weren’t supportive of the 5 evils.

Lab party : marginalised, NHS + full employment policy and workers = unity btwn state and population, felt heard. Rad change of british electorate.

• Extensive reconstruction program

• Implement Beveridge report

• Nationalisation of coal mines, inland transportation, the Bank of England, gas, electricity, iron and steel industry.

What was the post-war consensus ? 2 ex of act during post war consensus

Lab put pressure on the Cons bc understood needs of the pop → compromise from Churchill → 5-year plan → implemented some measures of Beveridge report, coalition to continue economic, social and foreign policies until 1979. Diff : common on educ + housing, but not on role of state + nationalisation.

• Family allowances Act : for each second and subsequent child.

• Education Act 1944 : duty for local authorities to provide school meals, no school fees for state secondary school -> greater access to education regardless of social classes.

Mid-1944 : few reforms implemented → revealed limits of the commitment of the Cons party.

Basis of post war consensus

• Full employment.

• Mixed economy : public ownership of core industries.

• Conciliation w/ TU.

• Govt intervention to flatten inequalities.

• Welfare state.

• Foreign policy : nuclear power + OTAN.

Critic of post war consensus

Emphasizes that 2 main political parties differed profoundly :

• Distribution of income

• Nature of political authority

• Conflict over NHS

• Conflict over nationalisation

What was the goal of the Welfare state ?

Weekly financial contribution. In return :

• Benefits when sick, unemployed, widow, guardian of children w/out parents.

• Marriage, maternity, training and death grants.

• Pension to retired employees + universal access to education and health.

4 acts of the Welfare state

• New towns acts

• National Insurance Act 1948 (insured those who couldn’t pay weekly contribution)

• Children’s Act 1948 (childcare)

• NHS Act 1946 : effect in July 1948.

What are the bases of Keynesianism ?

• Goods and services at lower price → increase aggregate demand (=spending)

• Govt intervention to regulate the market => full employement, higher wages, limit demand ect

1935, General theory of employment interest and money

Basis of free market (Cons) system

• No govt control = laissez-faire capitalism

• Private ownership

• Individual rights : freedom to innovate, not constrained by the govt.

What was the Industrial Charter ?

1947, alignment of the Cons w/ Lab economic and social policies :

• Accepted mixed economy.

• Protect labour rights (won by TU)

• Opposed protectionism (= tariffs on imports)

Opposed within Cons → “Butskellism” (chancellors of the exchequeLab Hugh Gaitskell + Cons R.A Butler).

Lab financial operations btwn 1945 and 1951 (5 points)

• Raise taxes to fund projects while Cons wanted to lower them.

• Exports by 200%

• Output rose a third

• Gross domestic product rose by 3%

• Wage rates rose average 6%

(go see text)

What was Edward Heath’s term like ? (manifesto, TU, revolts)

1970-74 Cons PM, led Britian into EEC.

1970 manifesto → break away from Keynesianism. Promised lower taxes, TU reforms, min state intervention, reduced social services. U-turn in 1972 Indus Act state financial aid for industries → backbenchers revolt.

Miners unofficial strike 1960s → TU had too much power in Cons’ opinion esp blue collars. Minors wanted a 25% increase in wages → state of emergency.

Consequence : Industrial relations Act 1971 = mandatory registration for unions, govt body created → loss freedom. Secret ballot for industry election (before → by rising hand) → legal framework imposed on way of operation → disagreement, protests.

How did the Yom Kippur War happen and what were the consequences ? (Heath)

US and western Europe supported Israel against the URSS. Saudi Arabia + OPEC decided to rise their prices and place an embargo (supply went down) → oil crisis.

Consequences :

• Unemployment rose + low growth which led to stagflation (high prices, ex for food), bringing the economy down.

• In 1976, the UK applied for a loan to the IMF (International Monetary Fund).

How did the Commonwealth appear ?

1884 Lord Rosebery PM.

Anglo-Irish treaty 1921 → officialized commonwealth :

• Creation of free Irish state as a Dominion : allowed EN to have naval bases in the country, self-governed country within Brit Empire.

• Became a republic in 1948

1926 Imperial conference → equal status, can’t subordinate the other. Unity based on common allegiance to crown.

Statute of Westminster 1931 : CAN (Dominion 1867), AUS, S-A independence but stayed in CWealth.

3 key concepts of CWealth

Paternalism : govt as father, responsible for colonies educ, too weak or barbarian, cons idea → Disraeli’s Sybil and the 2 nations (1845).

“Noblesse oblige” → aristocracy has moral duty to fight for the poor.

Nationalism (past Imperialism) : based on national and cultural identity. Ex : Welsh, English, Irish, Scottish.

How could inhabitants of the CWealth immigrate to UK following their independence ?

Decolo started during Attlee’s mandate, ex : India Independence in 1948. Following WW2 : labor shortage, declining population, parts of Britain devastated.

Colonial labour → British Nationality Act of 1948 → status of citizens of UK and the colonies (CUKC, patrial)→ provide ppl coming to UK right to entry, citizenship and settlement.

West Indians immigrate to EN to find better job opportunities + had internalised paternalistic approach → Mother Country.

What was Operation Vaken and the Windrush scandal ? (Windrush gen)

From Caribbean Islands → govt hadn’t expected such massive immigration → concerns. Low paid no skill jobs, need mainly in NHS and transportation.

2012-2013 D. Cameron (cons) Hostile Environment Legislation → undocumented migrants granted British nationality → wanted to cut them from public services. Operation Vaken : go home or face arrest, stopped 2013. Bankers + NHS members encouraged to report them.

= lost access to housing, driving license, bank accounts + placed in detention to be deported. Later → govt apologised and paid compensation.

2018 Windrush scandal : children of the gen, travelled on their parents passports + had no perso record → detained.

Notting hill’s history of racial violence

White working class “teddy boys” → attacks towards black families of Notting Hill during 1958 summer + far fights fascist groups “Union Movement” or “White Defence League” → “protect their area and keep Britain white” (KBW).

24th August 1958 : assault on 6 West Indian men in four separate incidents → 5y in prison and 500£ fine.

Notting Hill Carnival → 1958 by Trinidadian human rights activist Claudia Jones → gathering to unify the community after attacks → Jan 1959 : Caribbean carnival.

60s Commonwealth Acts (3)

• 1962 CWealth Act : only those w/ govt issued employment vouchers allowed to immigrate → false student app + marriages. Lab critic yet reinforced it.

• 1971 Immigration Act : prevent citizens from CWealth to settle in UK. Replaced employment vouchers w/ work permit and temporary residence.

• 1965 + 1968 Race Relations Acts : ban racial discrimination in public places, illegal to refuse housing, employment or access to public services.

What was Harold Wilson’s term like ? (TU)

1964-76, Lab.

Social Contract : agreement btwn TU congress, businesses and govt to respect the TU :

• Voluntary debates : deal btwn them

• Btwn 5% - 7% of limit of wages increase

• Collective bargaining

Inflation was very high in 75 → 28% + high unemployment then went down.

Shop Stewarts wanted a wage increase of 26% → above the limit of the govt + wanted repeal of Industrial Relations Act = pop thought TU too much pwr.

What was James Callaghan’s term like ?

1976-79

Social contract → improvement of the economy by 5%. But some thought could lead to unrest → didn’t listen → clash → TU wanted end of the pay restraint which was a campaign promise which hadn’t been kept.

Consequences : winter of discontent → strikes 1978-79 → obtained increase of 17%, defined as new limit. More sectors such as the BBC asked for pay rises. No govt sanctions → more strikes, ex : grave diggers, refuse collectors, NHS = anti-socialist + anti TU sentiment.

Response to chaos : only an interview → undermined the situation. No confidence vote in H of C 28th March 1979 → to resign or call a general election → called general election → Cons won → Thatcher.

Thatcher’s social origins and their impact on her political career

Father was her role model; self-made, owned his shop, lay preacher and alderman of the town, Victorian convictions (at home, raise children), undergraduate degree in chem from Oxford,, lawyer for 5y. Cons leader in 1975.

• Gender : 1rst woman to become leader of the Cons → deemed modern to accept her.

• Modest background : advertised her humble origins, while her predecessors were from aristocratic backgrounds → political tool. Attended grammar school, Oxford and got married to a wealthy man = climbed social ladder, self-made woman → Cons started to support working class, unite poor and wealthy elite → switch of electorate → yet wasn’t really supportive of them.

4 main policies regarding housing, privatisation, education and health

• Home ownership → tenants could buy their council houses (logement sociaux) w/ no deposit required or mortgage.

• Privatisation → allow ppl to become shareholders + end public owned sectors : British telecom, Britoil, Aviation Act 1980, Rolls Royce 1987, British Steel 1988, Brit Gas 1986, water and electricity. By 1991, 1/3 of the publicly owned commercial sector remained.

• 1988 Education Reform Bill : Nat curriculum, allow schools to opt out of the control of the Local education authorities. Grant-maintained schools 1988-98 = directly funded through central govt.

• Health : creation of NHS internal market → competition within NHS. Increase efficiency but reduction in quality of care for patients.

What is Neoliberalism ?

Break from Keynesianism, free-market capitalism = let market regulate itself.

D-L-P : Deregulations, Liberalisation, Privatisation

• Tax cuts, cuts of welfare services

• Reduction of govt’s spending.

• Downsizing of govt, anti-unionisation (= obstacles to free market)

Devolution important yet T disapproved → contradictory w/ neoliberalism :

• In favour a strong central govt in Westminster

• No barrier between the State and the individual

Thatcher’s economy price mechanisms

M. Friedman + Friedrich Hayek : in favour of monetarism and control of the overall supply by adjusting interest rates (= lowering amount of money in circulation).

• If interest rates increased : save ppl money, they would not borrow from banks, reduction in money supply and money in circulation and growth would decrease.

• If interest rates were lowered : cost of borrowing would decrease, consumption would rise, growth would increase but prices would increase too.

= find right balance btwn the two.

New rules at the start of Thatcher’s term against the TUs

• 7% non-negotiable increase of wages => refused by TUs.

• 1980 => 7% limit increase of wages / 1981 : 13% limit increase on wages => wages increase asked to keep up w/ inflation.

• 1980 Employment Act : over 80% of workers voting for a strike to continue it, outlawed secondary picketing (people picket locations not connected to the issue of the protest) and sympathy strikes.

Employment Act of 1982 : increase rights of individuals to take legal action against their unions, outlawed political strikes (= challenging the government or influence its policy)

What was the 1984 miners’ strike causes and outcome ?

National Coal Board (govt agency) → aim was to produce massive stocks of coal to prepare UK for a shortage of coal in case of strikes = preparing the country for a fight with the TU, show they were not needed, the govt wouldn’t back down on wages.

T closed 20 mines in 1984, because :

• Cheaper export from abroad

• Govt no longer wanted to subsidise its coal industry

• Changing energy culture due to rising environmental movement

• Rise of a services-led economy → no longer a profitable business

Riots in protest of racism (3 exemples and the causes of the riots)

Confrontation btwn black young ppl from inner cities and police :

• Brixton (London April 1981)

• Toxteth (Liverpool, July 1981)

• Handsworth (Birmingham July 1981)

Bc of :

• Perceived racism + discrimination

• Increase of stop-and-search by the police (called operation Swamp)

• Inner city deprivation

• Poverty + high unemployment = anger

• Recession

= commissioning of the Scarman Report in Nov → identified racial + economic deprivation.

What were the Falklands war + their effect on Thatcher’s term

Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands (brit isles) in April 1982 = T fought back and won + claimed ownership of those islands = popular thanks to this war, strength, determination → enemy → contributed to her re-election.

= symbol of Boadicea : Queen of ancient British tribe who fought against the Romans, symbol of justice.

Protests in NIreland regarding IRA prisoners

1976 Harold Wilson abolished the ‘special category’ status to IRA prisoners’ which gave them political prisoners status, not criminals. Thatcher refused to give this status back : “crime is crime is crime. It is not political. It is crime. There can be no question of political status”.

• Dirty protest : refused to empty their chamber pot.

• Blanket protest = did not wear their uniforms (naked under their blankets).

• 1981 : 27 years old Bobby Sands + 9 other prisoners → hunger strike → became NIreland MP while in prison → all died after 66 days on hunger strike.

What was the poll tax ?

Old domestic rates system → taxing property rather than people = 18 million out of an electorate of 35 million, mainly businesses = for the same rate a house with 5 persons received the same benefits / services as 1person.

Poll tax/community charge → same amount for everyone, tax individuals directly = individual responsibility and not collective responsibility.

= regressive, unfair, hard to collect, low-income individual and families had to pay the same rate regardless of their income.

Implemented in Scotland as trial in 1989 : “Can’t pay, won’t pay’ protest, then in England and Wales in 1990.

Wets and Dries

Wets : Ian Gilmour, Jim Prior considered her authoritarian, rejected public spending cuts → replaced them w/ dries in 1981 → control of govt.

T. Blair’s main political actions and policies

Moved Lab to centre → encourage public ownership + reduced TU links + abandon nationalisation (M.T ideas), free market, EU integration, 1997-2007.

• Bank of England → determine interest rates w/out govt intervention

• Signed Maastricht treaty in Feb 1992.

• Peace in NIreland btwn unionist and republicans (1998) : Good Friday Agreement.

• Referendum → devolved parliament in Scotland, Wales and N-Ireland.

• Eliminated 92 hereditary members of the H of L.

What is T. Blair’s 3rd way ?

Coined 1992 → another option for the population. “Enable social democracy to respond to the challenges of the worldwide market economy and to equip citizens to cope w/ major revolution of our time including globalisation.” = “revisionist socialism”.

• Move away from dogmatism to pragmatism

• Revisionism

• Synthesis btwn socialism, democracy and liberalism + rejection of communists => distinguish from Cons.

= controversial within Lab and other political parties.

T. Blair’s international involvement (3 actions)

Peace keeping in Kosovo and Sierra Leone.

9/11 → international coalition, drove the Taliban out of pwr in Afghanistan and allied w/ US (G. Bush). Early 2003 → weapons inspectors to Iraq → caused divisions in Lab → ministers resigned + 139 voted in favour of a motion against it and the Iraq war. March 2003 → attack on Iraq but no weapons of mass destruction uncovered.

Treaty of Amsterdam => transfer certain pwr (immigration, legislation, civil and criminal laws enacting common foreign policies) from national govt to Eur parliament.

Outcome of T. Blair’s 3 terms

Increase in poverty, drug dealing, crimes. Police, education and civil services crisis.

2005 : Islamic bombing in London tube => former multicultural policies abandonned.

H of C in 2005 : 49 Lab members joined opposition and voted against anti-terrorists laws in favour of an extension of the time a suspect could be held w/out charges.

June 2007 : resigned.

UK’s reasons and disadvantages of integrating the EC

Created in 1957, reasons to join :

• More competition in Brit industry

• Create a larger market

• More trade w/ other Eur countries

Disadvantages :

Supranational tariffs + CAP (Common Agricultural Policy, subsidies for dev of agriculture in Eur), but the UK didn’t need a development of their agriculture because their food came from the CWealth. Richer members of EC → heavily taxed for CAP → deemed to receive not much in return bc not big agricultural sector (“I want my money back”).

Joining → food would be available at a higher price due to higher tariffs + would have to cut their ties w/ the CWealth + Brit’s agriculture was too weak to sustain itself.

Why did the UK struggle to join the EC ? When was it able to join ?

Feared to enlarge the EEC → if Brit joined, USA would impose their policies through them → Trojan horse → fear of Americanisation. Insular character of the UK → difficult to make them comply w/ rules.

Feared that the UK would impose another economic model different from the agricultural policy.

1972 : E. Heath + Pompidou agreed on the integration of the UK → H of C 1971 debate on integration → 1973 : UK full member of EEC.

1rst referendum on Brexit

1975 referendum on whether or not to support membership : do you think that the UK should stay in the EC ? → Yes 67%, minority of Lab MPs voted in favour → feb 1974 : general elections, Lab manifesto promised renegotiation of the membership w/ better terms, reform CAP and better budget settlement.

Callaghan (76-79) also organised a referendum to tighten the links in the Lab and renegotiate the terms.

April 1972 Neil Marten Cons anti-EC called for consultative referendum → not done.

Reasons for euroscepticism

Mainly in Cons : from 7 to 47 MPs btwn 1979 to 91. Britian’s island situation + history → protect itself from the continent, relations w/ CWealth rather than Eur. Economic reasons :

• Economic troubles increased after UK joined → recession → oil shortage, inflation.

• End of economic relationship w/ CWealth.

E. Powell : EC → loss of parliamentary and individual sovereignty : “European superstate”, “deprive country of free self-governing institutions”. + immigration later added as an issue during the Brexit campaign.

What was the Bruges speech ? (date, why, claims)

1988 → EEC president Jacques Delors → dev a European govt (senate w/ council of ministers), create a single currency + Eur central bank. For M. T → delusion of an individual state + against EEC nation.

8 sept = Delors speech to TUCongress calling for their support for the EEC’s attempt to strengthen the power of TU = taken as a provocation towards Thatcher.

Answer to him in her Bruges speech on 20th of sept 1988 : recounted Britian’s history w/ Europe → called for the EEC to resist centralisation of pwr, reforms the CAP = continue to support NATO.

= Led to divisions btwn Eur federalists and the majority against it + divisions within the Cons.

What was the ERM crisis ? (aim, impacts)

Aimed to reduce exchange rate variability and achieve stability before member countries moved to the single currency → easier trade, more fluid.

M. T didn’t want it but she eventually accepted in oct 1990. 1992 : Black Wednesday → Chancellor Norman Lamont announced the suspension of the pound’s membership to the ERM.

What is the Single European Act ? (reasons, aim, what it implemented, complaints)

1 July 1987, amended treaty of Rome. Aim : creation of a single market → no internal borders, free mov of goods + persons + economic stimulus.

QMV (Qualified Majority Voting) rather than unanimity → 55% of countries and 65% of the EU population to implement policies = weaken pwr of national govt to oppose policies.

Creation of governing bodies regarding environment, education → further political integration :

• Eur commission

• Eur parliament

• Council of ministers

Complaints : loss of sovereignty + “federal Europe”.

What was the Maastricht treaty ? (date, what is consisted of)

1992 and applied in 1993 under J. Major’s term (europragmatist). Key concepts of the treaty :

• Education, public health and consumer protection

• Increase in environmental protection, social and economic cohesion, tech research.

• Introduce a central banking system + common currency → UK opted out of it to reassure Eurosceptics.

• Social Chapter : workers rights and pay, improve working conditions, social security, TU rights.

Rebellion and complaints regarding the Maastricht treaty

Complaints in H of C regarding the Social Chapter -: destroy investments, competitiveness, jobs, deemed to give too much pwr to ppl, wage raised → less profits, wanted to keep labour force cheap.

Rebellion against the treaty → J. Major feared that if he didn’t listen to the Eurosceptic he might lose pwr. Thus, he attacked the Social Chapter + common currency yet had to balance to have majority for the M treaty = be inside and outside EEC at the same time. 1992 : J. Major had a maj of only 21 seats → confidence motion to make the rebels “shut up or put up” → Eurosceptics voted in favour of J. Major.

Reasons for Brexit

Racism and immigration. D. Camron implanted reforms concerning immigration : 4y in the country to be legitimate and benefit from tax credit and child benefits.

2015 general elections → central issues : abuse of free movements, migrants taking benefit of advantage, take jobs of British.

26 May 2016 : report on immigration → 630,000 ppl.

Organisation of Brexit (T. May and B. Johnson)

Cameron resigned → T. May → pro-Europe but still had the task to get Britain out of Europe → March 2017 → article 50 → 2y period of negotiation w/ EU. June 2017 → snap election to have more MP but she ended w/ a hung parliament of DUP w/ Cons.

White paper : public doc setting out the govt’s proposals for future legislation.

Brussel’s condition : new border in NIreland but no hard border due to the Good Friday agreement → May said the border would not be implemented → extension to negotiate w/ Brussels → deal rejected x3 → resigned.

B. Johnson promised the UK would leave on the 31/10/2019.

What does devolution mean + 3 ex in UK ?

Process of transferring power from the centre to both the nations and regions of the UK, Latin “roll down”. “Parliamentary sovereignty” => devolution is reversible, devolved institutions are direct derivation from UK statute.

Process of devolution in the UK (3 exs, oppositions)

1990s →national awareness rising in the UK especially in NIreland + Scotland.

Cons PM J. Major → against granting independence to NIreland. T. Blair Lab PM 1997 granted devolution in 1998 to prevent independence by this compromise + way for the Lab to act differently from the Cons.

• Holyrood parliament in Scotland : The Scotland Act 1998

• Local assembly in Ireland and Wales : Govt of Wales Act 1998 + Good Friday Agreement 1998

• Decentralisation to cities as Manchester to mayor.

Scottish devoluted parliament’s characteristics

Scottish parliament => 129 members.

Fields of action : agriculture, education, elections to the Scottish Parliament and local govt, energy, environment, equality, freedom of info, health and social services, housing, justice, tourism, transports, taxation => some only partly.

Tool a long time to be granted => had to be agreed on, Westminster had to keep some of its pwr.

Scottish independence referendum

2014 granted by Cons govt D. Cameron) → against Cons principle but accepted bc local pwrs were gaining pwr especially in Scotland w/ SNP + phase of modernisation of the Cons party → more referendum, consultation, involvement of public in decisions.

A political tool to make Scotland stay in the Union => 55% voted to stay in the Union.

Northern Ireland’s Legislative Assembley’s characteristics

Assembly of 90 MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly) → 5 in each of NIreland's 18 multi-member constituencies. 48 elections conducted under the STV (Single Transferable Vote) => system of proportional-ranked choice voting (rank candidates on the ballot, multi winer electoral system). Elected every 5y.

For the Assembly to dissolve itself : support of 2/3 of MLAs or if a first Minister and deputy First Minister fail to be nominated.

Fields of action : Health and social services, education, employment, agriculture, social security, child support, agriculture, housing, economic development, local govt, environment, transport, culture and sport, Civil Service, equality, justice and policing (mainly composed of protestants before).

Wales’ Senedd’s characteristics

Welsh parliament of 60 members known as MS (members of Senedd), composed of 40 constituency representative, 20 representing five multi-member regions.

Regional members are elected, as in Scotland the Additional Member closed-party list system (two votes : vote for candidate standing in local constituency + vote for a party list standing in a wider region made up of multiple constituencies) → more representation, contrary to total votes cast.

Fewer pwrs : agriculture, education, environment, health, housing, local govt, transport and highways (not in others), some over income tax, stamp duty and landfill tax.

Devolution in England’s characteristics

Slower pace → Greater London was included in the late 1990s reforms => devolving pwr to clusters of local authorities (ex : Manchester and Liverpool).

• Election of metro mayors => executive devolution rather than legislative.

• Regional Development Agencies and Regional Chambers established by the Lab in 1999.

• 2003 => Govt announced that referendums would be organised which would lead to choosing the English regions which could be included in devolution => The North East, Yorkshire and the Humber and North West (areas in which consultations indicated the most support for regional govt). Each were planned to take place on 04/11/2004 but only one took place in North East. Results (all postal ballot) → almost 4 to 1 voted against a directly elected assembly => overwhelming rejection.

(see text)