Studied by 1 person
Complete flashcards of all studies to learn for Paper 1!
Jenness’ Beans Study
Studying conformity
Glass bottle filled with 811 white beans
Sample 101 psychology students.
Procedure = individually estimate number of beans. Then discuss in a group and provide group estimate. Then a second opportunity to individually estimate. (Wanted to see if they changed answer).
Findings = nearly all PPs changed answer. Females more often than males. Likely a result of ISI.
Shultz et al.
Found they were able to change the behaviour of hotel guests by using printed messages encouraging them to save energy. The messages suggested that other guests were using fewer bath towels were the most successful.
Lucas et al.
Asked students to give answers to mathematical problems.
Greater conformity to incorrect answers when they were difficult rather than easy.
This was most true for students who rated their math ability as poor.
Concs = supports ISI explanation.
Asch’s original line study
Study conformity
128 male undergraduates participated in a ‘vision test’ (deception).
One naive participant in a room with 6-8 confederates, easy tasks.
Findings = a third of PPs conformed with the clearly incorrect majority. Over the 12 critical trials, approx 75% conformed at least once. In the control condition (only PP) less than 1% were wrong.
Concs = Can support NSI and ISI.
Asch’s variations (3 main ones)
Group size
Suggests a small majority isn’t sufficient enough for influence to be exerted, but no need for a majority of more than 3.
Unanimity of the Majority
Asch introduced another confederate who sometimes gave the wrong answer and sometimes the right.
Conformity was reduced by a quarter.
The presence of the dissenter enabled the PP to behave more independently.
Difficulty of the Task
When answers less obvious, conformity increases.
Suggests ISI, as people look to others for guidance.
Perrin and Spencer
Similar to Asch’s study but with engineering students.
Found very little conformity levels.
Shows some individual differences in ISI.
Asch’s variation to remove social anxiety factors.
PPs wrote down answers rather than speaking them out loud.
Findings = conformity decrease to 12.5%
Research support for NSI.
McGhee and Teevan
Found that students high in need of affiliation were more likely to conform.
nAffiliators, have a need for association/ relationship with others.
Bond and Smith
Repeat of Asch’s study in collectivist cultures eg. China found similar and higher rates of conformity.
Suggests results can’t be generalised to other cultures. (Asch’s = specific sample).
Asch’s research done in peak conformist time in America so a ‘child of its time’.
Counter → engineering students may be more confident in line measuring task.
Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment.
Study conformity to social roles
24 male student volunteers, randomly allocated roles either prisoner or guard.
Procedure = mock prison, prisoners arrested, degradation process eg allocation of numbers instead of names, no set rules, guards with the power.
Findings = prisoners rebelled against guards and showered psychological disturbance - 5 left the study early. Guards became sadistic and brutal. Study terminated after day 6 of intended 14.
Concs = supports that individuals will identify and conform to the expectations of a role they are given. Social roles are powerful influences of behaviour.
Banuazizi and Mohave (no study, just an argument)
Argued that PPs were play-acting their roles in Stanford Prison Experiment, rather than conforming to the roles.
One guard said in a post interview that he channeled the actions of a brutal guard in film ‘Cool Hand Luke’.
Milgram original study
Study obedience
40 male participants, found by newspaper ad.
Procedure = PPs drew rigged lots and always became teacher role, confederates acting as student. PP tested the student on remembering word pairs, punishment with increasing voltage shocks, going up to 450V.
Experimenter gave standardised prods to encourage continuing eg. an absence of response should be treated as a wrong answer.
Predictions = very few PPs would go beyond 150V, only 1 in 1000 would goto full 450V.
Findings = All PPs gave minimum of 300V (until thud noise), 65% continued to 450V. PPs (via observation) showed extreme stress signs, 3 having full blown seizures.
All PPs debriefed after the study, told their behaviour was entirely normal. Then in a post questionnaire, 84% reported they were glad to have participated.
Milgram Follow up study on situational variables affecting obedience (3)
Proximity
If learner was in the same room as teacher giving shocks, obedience fell from original 65% to 40%.
If teacher had to force learner’s hand onto shock plate, obedience fell to 30%.
If experimenter gave orders to the teacher over the phone, obedience fell to 21%.
Location
If study was conducted in a run down office building, obedience rates only dropped slightly, only 47% delivering the full 450V NOT SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE.
Uniform
If experimenter wore normal clothes (originally wore a lab coat), obedience levels dropped to 20%.
Bushman
Study effect of uniform on obedience.
Female researcher, dressed in diff ways :
Police uniform - 72% obedience
Business exec - 52%
Beggar - 48%
People claimed they had obeyed because of legitimate authority.
Orne and Holland (no study, just argument)
and Gina Perry
Orne & Holland suggested PPs knew that the shocks were fake. (However Milgram argued that they wouldn’t show extreme signs of stress if this was the case.')
Gina Perry reviewed the interview tapes, finding that many PPs raised questions about the legitimacy of the shocks.
Bickman
Studying effect of uniform on obedience.
Experiment in New York streets, 3 confederates with different uniforms.
Security Guard uniform = 76% obedience.
Milkman uniform = 47% obedience.
Jacket and tie uniform = 30% obedience.
Confederates asked passers-by to perform tasks eg. Giving someone money for parking meter.
Blass and Schmitt
A film of Milgram’s study was shown to a group of students. they were asked to identify who was responsible for the harm to the learner. The students blamed the experimenter not the teacher.
Hofling et al,
Rank and Jacobsen
Hofling et al. Doctor ordering nurse to administer double the dosage of a made up drug to a patient. 21 out of 22 obeyed.
Rank and Jacobsen - Doctor’s order (over the phone) to give double the advised dosage of a familiar drug - Valium to a patient. The nurses had an opportunity to discuss with others nurses. Found that only 2 out of 18 nurses obeyed. The doctor was an authority figure but nurses remained autonomous.
Kilkham and Mann
Replicated Milgram’s study on Australian women and found that only 16% went to 450V.
Mantell
Replicated Milgram’s study in Germany, with obedience to 450V at 85%.
Adorno et al.
Investigated the causes of the obedient personality.
More than 2000 middle-class white Americans'.
Developed California F (Facism) scale, used to measure Authoritarian personality.
Findings = Positive correlation between high score and prejudice, fixed views on stereotypes and categories of people.
Authoritarian personality = excessive respect and obedience to authority. Want for power. Want traditional values to be enforced. Inflexible in their black and white outlook.
Origins of personality - formed in childhood from harsh parenting and strict discipline. This creates resentment of people who are weak.
Elms and Milgram (linked to Adorno)
Elms and Milgram interviewed 20 fully obedient PPs and 20 disobedient PPs from Milgram’s original study.
Obedient Pps score significantly higher on the F-scale than the disobedient.
Suggests that obedient people may share many of the characteristics of people with an Authoritarian personality.
Greenstein (no study, just an argument)
argues that the way that all of the questions on Adorno’s California F scale are worded in the same direction means that the scale actually just measures the tendency to agree to everything.
Allen and Levine
Found that one dissenter decreased conformity significantly.
Still occurred even when dissenter said he had difficulty with vision (therefore cancels out ISI explanation for conformity with dissenter) so much be Social Support explanation for resisting conformity.
Gamson et al.
Milgram variation study where another confederate refused to obey, decreased levels of obedience.
There were groups of PPs, and 29 out of 33 groups rebelled.
Holland
Conducted a Milgram repreat study and had measured LOC of PPs before. Higher % of internals resisting in comparison to externals.
This means that people with an external LOC are more likely to obey, supporting the role of elf LOC in explaining obedience.
Twenge et al.
Analysed dat over 40 years to find that people have become more resistant but also more external.
Therefore this can’t be explained by LOC as your would expect the exact opposite.
Moscovici
Testing consistency as a key factor to minority influence.
All female PPs, groups of 4 PPs and 2 confederates.
Shown clearly different blue slides.
2 conditions - 1, the confederates consistent in saying Green each time. 2, the confederates inconsistently switching between answering Green and Blue.
Findings = Condition 1 8% agree, condition 2 1% agree.
Concs = Consistency is important for influencing people as a minority.
Variation of Moscovici
Pls could write down responses privately. private agreement with minority was still high, showing that minority influence can lead to internalisation.
Wood
Carried out a meta-analysis on 100 similar studies and found that minorities who were seen as being consistent were the most influential.
Nemeth et al.
Study on Flexibility in causing social change from minority influence.
Constructed a mock jury in which there were 3 genuine participants and 1 confederate. They had to decide on the amount of compensation to give a ski lift accident victim. When the confederate would not change from a low amount which seemed unreasonable, the majority stuck together at a much higher amount.
However, when the confederate changed his compensation offer a bit, so did the majority.
Nolan
One group saw sign saying others were decreasing energy use. Other group saw sign saying to save energy.
1st group had significant decrease in usage.
Shows NSI in social change.
Basir et al.
Found that people resist change towards a minority even when they agree.
likely as they don’t want to be associated with minority stereotypes.
Eg. feminists and environmentalists.
Baddely on coding of STM
Gave lists of words with different categories - similar / different sounds, similar / different meanings.
More mistakes on words which sounded similar. Concs = STM info mainly coded acoustically.
Jacobs
Capacity of STM.
Digit span test, numbers of letters / numbers gradually increasing.
Found average capacity was between 5-9.
Miller
Capacity of STM.
How many random numbers could be held in STM, in order to make phone numbers.
Found that 7 items, ±2.
Chunking can be used to increase capacity.
Peterson & Peterson
Duration of STM.
Aimed to test the hypothesis that info which is not rehearsed is lost quickly from STM.
Recalling meaningless trigrams eg. TXC at different intervals. To prevent rehearsal, students had to count backward in threes from a specific number until they were asked to recall the trigrams.
Found that the longer the interval, the less accurate the recall. Concs = STM has a limited duration of approx 18 seconds.
Baddeley on coding of LTM.
Same procedure as study on STM, PPs much more confusion with similar meanings.
Conc = LTM info encoded by its meaning / semantically.
Bahrick
Duration of LTM.
Year book study, PPs of various ages tested on their memory of school friends.
Conc = recall can be accurate over a long period of time.
Clive Wearing case study
Clinical study of amnesia from a viral brain infection.
His procedural memory was intact (he could remember how to play piano) but episodic memory was damaged (couldn’ remember ever playing music before, couldn’t remember children’s names).
Supports the view that there are diff memory stores in LTM because one store can be damaged but others unaffected.
CL case study
8 yo girl suffered brain damage from removal of brain tumour.
Episodic memory damaged (couldn’t create new episodic memories but semantic memory intact.
Tulving brain scans
Got PPs to do a variety of LTM tasks whilst their blood flow / brain functioning was measured using PET scans.
Findings = activation of right prefrontal cortex during thinking about episodic memories. activation of left prefrontal cortex when thinking about semantic memories. procedural memories caused activation in cerebellum and basal ganglia.
Concs = support for seperate stores for LTM. May also explain why procedural memories are so resistant to memory loss, they are located deep within centre of the brain and thus protected from injury.
Belleville
Devised an intervention for old people targeting episodic memory which improved their memory compared to a control group.
Shows real life application of distinguishing between types of LTM. (specific treatments can be developed).
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Multi-store model of memory.
Our senses take in information, storing in sensory register.
If attention is paid, then it moves to STM, otherwise memory trace is forgotten.
If info in STM is rehearsed, then it moves to LTM, otherwise it is forgotten.
KF case study
motorcycle accident, STM damage.
Verbal information in STM recall bad, visual normal.
Suggests STM is not a unitary store.
Baddeley and Hitch (model)
The Working Memory model
Central executive (our attention) controls 3 slave systems, each of which handles a diff type of info.
Visuo-spatial sketchpad = visual.
Episodic buffer = events, experiences.
Phonological loop = acoustic info.
Braver et al.
Evidence to support existence of CE.
When PPs were given tasks that involved the CE, eg. reasoning tasks, the brain demonstrated that there was greater activity in the pre-frontal cortex. As the task got harder, activity in these areas increased. As the demands of the CE increased, it needs to work harder to fulfil the function.
Elsinger and Domasio
Studied a man who suffered brain damage after the removal of a tumour.
Some of the functions of the Central Executive were damaged, others intact.
He couldn’t make decisions easily but could cope well with interference during memory tasks.
Suggests that CE is not a unitary store.
McGeoch & McDonald
Studied interference as an explanation for forgetting.
Found that recall was worst on list of synonyms - proof of interference with similar info.
Retroactive = RECENT memories get in the way of old memories.
Proactive = OLD memories get in the way of recent ones.
Baddeley & Hitch
Investigated interference theory as they believed it was a better explanation for forgetting than simply time passing.
They asked rugby players to try and remember the names of teams they had played so far in that season.
Findings = accurate recall did NOT depend on how long ago the matches took place, but what was actually important in affecting their recall was how many games they had played in the meantime.
Underwood and Postman
Evidence for retroactive interference.
2 groups were given a list of paired words eg. ‘cat-tree’ to learn.
The experimental group were then given a second list of words to learn where the first word was the same as it was in the first list, but the it was paired with a different words eg. ‘cat-dirt’.
Both groups were then tested on their recall of the first list by being given the first word from each pair.
Findings = Recall was better in the control group.
Conc = that retroactive interference of the second word list had affected the recall of the experimental group so the participants couldn’t remember as many words from the first list.
Tulving & Potska
Suggests interference may be overcome by using cues.
Procedure = gave PPs lists of words to remember, organised by categories (they weren't told category at first). recall of the first list was around 70% but fell with each new list due to interference.
When given a cue (the name of the category), recall rose again to 70%.
Conc = interference only causes a temporary loss of access to material still in LTM, which isn’t predicted in the theory.
Tulving & Pearlstone
Testing Encoding Specificity Principle.
Given cues to remember words on recall, or not.
Free recall = 40% success.
Cued recall = 60% success.
Godden and Baddeley
Testing context dependent forgetting.
Diver PPs, 4 conditions - learning/testing done on land/ in water.
Goodwin
Testing State dependent forgetting.
List of words, either drunk or sober 4 conditions.
Abernathy
Found that students performed better in tests if the tests took place in the same room as the learning of the material had taken place and were administered by the same instructor who had taught the info.
Loftus & Palmer
Car crash study, supporting leading questions as misleading information affecting EWT.
PPs shown a video of a traffic collision, then given a questionnaire to ‘test their immediate recall of the video.’ One question was the focus in which each PP had a diff verb eg Hit, Contacted, Smashed - in regards to the speed of the car when they collided. They were asked to estimate the speed.
Findings = speed estimates were highest fodder ‘smashed’ question and slowest for ‘contacted’ version.
Suggests that EWT immediate recall can be skewed by LQ.
Two weeks later they were asked ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ despite there being none. 32% of PPs in ‘smashed’ condition said yes, compared to 12% control condition.
Suggests their memory was actually altered - subsitution explanation.
Gabbert et al.
Research support for PED as misleading information affecting EWT.
60 students from Aberdeen Uni and 60 older adults from local community, 2 conditions (individual - control condition and co-witness in pairs - experimental condition).
PPs watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet individually. In co-witness group, only one had actually seen her steal it. They discussed the video together than then separately completed a questionnaire.
Findings = 71% of co-witness group recalled info they had not actually seen. 60% said the girl was guilty despite not actually seeing her commit a crime.
Johnson & Scott
Pen/Knife study, on weapon focus effect and anxiety.
Procedure = PPs asked to sit in waiting room, they hear an argument in adjacent room, a man runs through the waiting room either with greasy hand and pen, or blood and knife. PPs later asked to identify the man from a set of photographs.
Findings = in pen condition / low anxiety 49% accuracy in identifying. In knife condition 33% accuracy.
Conc = anxiety has a negative effect on EWT.
Christiansen & Hubbinette
Studying anxiety affecting EWT.
Questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberiesin Sweden. Either victims (bank employees) or bystanders (customers). Victims in close proximity = high anxiety and bystanders low anxiety.
Interviews carried out 4-15 months after robberies.
Findings = Those with high anxiety had best recall - over 75% accuracy.
Yuille & Cushall
Contradicts weapon-focus effect.
Study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada, the shop owner shot a thief dead.
Interviews carried out 4-5 months after incident and were compared to original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
Witnesses rated their anxiety levels using a 7 point scale.
Findings = those who reported high anxiety levels were most accurate (88%) and lower anxiety individuals were less accurate (75%).
Defenbacher
Meta-analysis of 21 studies on EWT.
10/21 - linked higher arousal to increased accuracy.
11/21 - linked higher arousal to decreased accuracy.
So he suggested this could be explained by the YERKES-DODSON effect (inverted U).
Geiselman CIT
Created the Cognitive Interview Technique
Report everything
Reinstate the context (re-imagine crime scene, cues)
Reverse the order (to avoid reporting expectations rather than facts)
Change the perspective (disrupt the schema’s affect of expectation)
Geiselman study
Investigate the effectiveness of CIT.
PPs viewed a film of a crime and after 48 hours were interviewed by a police officer using 1 of 3 techniques : CIT or standard police interview or hypnosis interview.
Findings = average number of correctly recalled facts using CIT was 41.2, for hypnosis was 38.0, for standard interview was 29.4.
Kohnken
Meta-analysis showed 81% increase in accurate details reported, but also 61% increase in inaccurate details reported when using CIT. Suggests that police should be cautious when utilising the information gained from Cognitive Interviews.
Fisher (no study, just adding to CIT)
Added techniques for enhanced CIT.
reducing EW anxiety.
Minimising distractions.
Slowing the witness’ speaking speed.
Asking open questions.
Kebbel & Wagstaff
Found that many police officers didn’t use the CI in less serious crimes as they didn’t have the time to.
Wright & Holliday,
Mellow & Fisher
Wright & Holliday = Found that the older the PPs, the less accurate the recall - but when using CI, they could recall significantly greater details.
Mellow & Fisher = Compared recall of older (mean age 72) and younger (mean age 22) PPs using CI. Watched film of a rime and interviewed with either CI or standard interview. Both age groups found significantly more information and gained more accuracy in reporting.
Meltzoff & Moore
Investigate interactional symphony between infant and caregiver.
Controlled observations of infants ages 6-27 days old.
Babies exposed to 4 diff stimuli - 3 facial gestures eg sticking tongue out and 1 manual gesture eg. waving fingers.
Responses were observed and recorded by multiple independent observers.
Findings = babies ages 12-27 days old could imitate both facial and manual gestures.
Grossman
Longitudinal study of 44 families to compare role of father and mother.
Ages 6, 10 and 16.
Found that father’s play style was closely linked to father’s own internal working model of attachment.
Play sensitivity was a better predictor of the child’s long term attachment figure and the early measures of the attachment type that the infant had with the father.
Field
Filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interactions with their primary & secondary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants (in the same way as primary mothers) compared to secondary caregiver fathers.
Therefore fathers have the ability to be more nurturing attachment figures. The key is in level of responsiveness, not gender of the parent.
Schaffer and Emerson study
Procedure = study male and female babies from Glasgow for first 18 months of life (longitudinal). They were visited monthly in their own home. Analysed interactions and when they start to display separation anxiety. Parents interviewed about everyday experiences.
Findings = attachments most likely to form with sensitive and responsive carers. By 10 months old, babies had several attachments.
Created the 4 stages of attachment.
Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment
0-6 weeks, ASOCIAL stage, infant shows similar response to objects and people, although they tend to a have a preference for faces/eyes.
6 weeks - 6 months, INDISCRIMINATE stage, infant has preference for human company, they can distinguish between people but are comforted indiscriminately by anyone.
7-12 months, DISCRIMINATE stage, infant shows preference for one caregiver, separation and stranger anxiety also present.
1yr +, MULTIPLE attachments stage, attachment behaviours now displayed to several different people.
Lorenz
Goslings eggs divided equally so they either hatched with the mother or in an incubator. Once hatched, they were observed and they followed the first moving object they saw between 13-16 hours of hatching.
Findings = Having a biological basis for an attachment to one single subject is adaptive as it promotes survival. Animals are programmed to imprint on the first moving object detected / rapid form of attachment in animals.
Harlow
8 rhesus monkeys, removed from mothers a few hours after birth, caged with a food-dispensing wire surrogate mother and a cloth surrogate mother.
Measured amount of time monkeys spent with each surrogate mother and the amount of time they cried for biological mother.
Scared the monkey with a monster to observe response.
Findings = showed attachment behaviours toward cloth surrogate mother. When scared, monkey ran to cloth covered mother for comfort and security. Monkey willing to explore room with toys when cloth mother present, but displayed phobic responses when wire mother present.
Implications = monkeys in isolation with surrogate mothers all displayed dysfunctional adult behaviour eg being timid, difficulty with mating, females were inadequate mothers.
Bowlby Monotropic Theory (no study)
Adaptive - forming an attachment helps to ensure survival.
Social Releasers - elicit an innate tendency in adults to care for them. Physical eg baby face features, Behavioural eg crying, cooing.
Critical period - 0-2.5 years, must form an attachment if not child will be damaged physically and emotionally.
Monotropy - One special attachment formed with mother, who is most sensitive and responsive to them.
Internal Working Model - Monotropic attachment acts as a template for future adult relationships. = Continuity hypothesis.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
Method = Controlled observation through a two way mirror, of 100 American infants 9-18 months old. Time sampling to measure behaviours every 15 seconds. 4 main categories = Response to reunion, Exploration behaviour, Separation anxiety, Stranger anxiety.
Procedure =
Child and caregiver enter unfamiliar room.
Child encouraged to explore, caregiver sits on a chair.
Stranger enters and tries to interact with child.
Caregiver leaves as stranger interacts.
The caregiver returns and stranger leaves.
The caregiver leaves the child alone.
The stranger returns and tries to interact with the child.
The caregiver returns and is reunited with the child.
Findings = Type A, insecure-avoidant = 22%. Type B, Secure = 66%. Type C, Insecure-resistant = 12%.
Main and Soloman
Conducted a followup study after strange situation, pointed out that a minority of children display atypical attachment types that don’t fall into the three measured by Ainsworth. A fourth attachment that was found was disorganised attachment. Infants with this type of attachment display a combination of resistant and avoidant behaviours.
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
Meta-analysis of 32 studies all using Strange Situation, including 2000 infants across 8 countries.
Compared individualistic / collectivist cultures.
Findings =
Secure attachment was the most common across all countries.
Insecure-avoidant was second most common, highest in Germany at 35%.
Insecure-resistant was least common, highest in Israel (29%) and Japan.
Overall pattern is consistent to Ainsworth’s USA findings from original study.
Takahashi
Repeated Ainsworth Strange Situation with 60 middle class Japanese people.
Found 0% insecure-avoidant, 32% resistant and 68% secure.
Seperation anxiety stage created severe distress so 90% were stopped early due to extreme anxiety.
Bowlby 44thieves
Supports Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis.
44 thieves compared to 44 non-thieves from a delinquency centre, using questionnaires and interviews.
Findings = 17/44 thieves had experienced prolonged separation from mothers before 5 years (extended critical period) but only 2/44 non thieves experienced such separation.
15/17 of these thieves classed as affectionless psychopaths, showing no guilt or remorse.
Rutter
Research on institutionalisation with Romanian Orphans.
165 romanian infants, only a few weeks old, longitudinal study and natural experiment.
British families adopted them, Rutter assessed development at ages 4, 6, 11, 15.
Findings
Adopted before 6 months age = normal development, caught up with British children.
Adopted after 6 months = showed disinhibited attachment, average IQ 86.
Adopted after 2 years = disinhibited attachment, average IQ 77, 33% had problems requiring intervention of educational or psychological professionals. Had characteristics similar to autism and general poor mental performance.
Concs = Forming an attachment before 6 months old is crucial otherwise long term consequences.
Zeenah et al.
Assessed attachment in 95 children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their time institutionalised. Their attachment type was measured using Strange Situation. Carers also questioned about any unusual social behaviours which may be displayed.
Findings = 74% of control group were securely attached. Only 19% of institutionalised group were securely attached. 65% classified with disorganised attachment.
Disinhibitied attachment applied = 44% of institutionalised children, compared to less than 20% of control group. This supports Rutter’s conclusions.
Gardner (no study, just argument)
Physical underdevelopment as a consequence of institutionalisation -
due to lack of maternal care (NOT from poor nutrition) causes ‘deprivation dwarfism’.
Skodak & Skeels
Found that when institutionalised children were moved to prisons, their IQ raised by 30 points. Likely due to receiving emotional care by inmates.
Wilson & Smith
Studied 196 children aged 7-11 using questionnaires and found evidence that bullying behaviour can be predicted by attachment type.
Secure - unlikely to be involved in bullying.
Insecure-avoidant = likely to be victims of bullying.
Insecure-resistant = likely to be the bullies.
Mary Main
Used the Adult Attachment Interview to study Infant-Parent pairs.
Over 6000 pairs assessed, results showed that 45% of adults were insecurely attached and this corresponded to their infants attachment.
Repeated study 10 years later with over 10,000 assessed, found that secure attachments had fallen and now 54% were insecurely attached.
She explained this in that we had become an e-society, with phones/texting which reduced out ability to relate in person.
Hazen and Shaver
The Love Quiz, studying association between early attachment and adult relationships. Exploring the idea of continuity between early attachment type and qualify of later romantic relationships.
Questionnaire in newspaper collecting information from volunteer sample.
Findings = 56% securely attached and most likely to have good long lasting romantic experiences.
o 25% insecure-avoidant, 19% insecure-resistant.
o Avoidantly attached = relationship difficulties, jealousy and fear of intimacy. Believed love was rare and had a greater tendency to divorce.
Zimmerman
Assessed infant attachment type and adolescent attachment to parents. Found very little relationship between the quality of infant and adolescent attachment. Contradicts other researchers findings.
Clarke and Alan Clarke (no study, just argument)
Describes the influence of infant attachment on later relationships as PROBABILISTIC, rather than deterministic. People are not always ‘doomed’ to have bad relationships, they just have a greater risk of problems.
David Rosenhan & Martin Seligman
Proposed some signs that can be used to determine when someone isn’t coping.
When a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, eg maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space.
When a person experiences severe distress.
When a person’s behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others.
Jahoda
Criteria for ideal mental health
Eg
Having a positive view of yourself (high self esteem) with a strong sense of identity.
Being able to master your environment (love, friendships, work, leisure time)
Watson & Raynor
Little Albert study
Aim - to investigate whether a fear response could be learned through CC in humans.
Method - before the experiment Albert showed no response to various objects eg rat. Then, they struck a metal bar with a hammer behind Albert’s head every time he reached for the rat. After, every time Albert was shown the rat he would start crying.
McGuffin et al.
Found that if one identical twin has depression, there is a 46% chance the other twin will also have depression. For non-identical twins, it is 20% concordance rate.
March et al.
Found that CBT emerged just as effective as medication to treat depression. Also helpful alongside medication. Medication only masks the depression.
Rozenweig
Found that the quality of the therapist-patient relationship is what determines success of CBT, rather than any particular technique that is used.
Lewis
In his OCD sample, he found
37% had parents with OCD.
21% had siblings with OCD.
Nestsdt et al.
Found that 68% of MZ twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of DZ twins.
Cromer et al.
Found that over half of OCD patients in a sample had a traumatic event in their past, and that OCD was more severe in those who had had more than one trauma.
Soomro et al.
Compared SSRI’s to placebos and found it reduced the severity of OCD symptoms and improved quality of life for OCD patients.
