Observations- data collecting

observations, structured and unstructured, event and time sampling, and interrater reliability

What is a naturalistic observation?

An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur.

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

Strengths:

• Greater ecological validity as behaviour is observed in its own setting

• Often used to generate new ideas (like case studies)

• Allows study of the total situation, suggesting new avenues of enquiry

What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Weaknesses:

• Often conducted on a micro (small) scale → may lack a representative sample (biased by age, gender, social class, ethnicity) → reduced generalisability

• Less reliable as variables cannot be controlled → difficult to replicate

• Researcher must be trained to recognise psychologically significant behaviour

• No manipulation/control of variables → cause and effect cannot be established

What is a controlled observation?

An observation study where the researcher controls some variables, often conducted in a laboratory setting.

What are the strengths of controlled observation?

Strengths:

• Easily replicated using the same observation schedule → high reliability

• Produces quantitative (numerical) data → easier and quicker to analyse

• Quick to conduct → allows large samples → more representative and generalisable

What are the weaknesses of controlled observation?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of controlled observation?

What is overt observation?

Also known as a disclosed observation, where participants give permission for their behaviour to be observed.

What are the strengths of overt observation?

Strengths:

• Reduces ethical issues as participants are aware

• Over time, participants may forget they are being observed and behave naturally

What are the weaknesses of overt observation?

Weaknesses:

• Social desirability → behaviour may change to appear favourable → reduced validity

• Increased demand characteristics → behaviour altered to match researcher expectations

What is covert observation?

Also known as an undisclosed observation, where participants do not know they are being observed.

What are the strengths of covert observation?

Strengths:

• Increased validity → behaviour is more natural

• Fewer demand characteristics

What are the weaknesses of covert observation?

Weaknesses:

• Ethical issues (no consent, difficulty with right to withdraw, debrief)

• If discovered → behaviour may change → reduced validity

What is participant observation?

An observation where the researcher joins the group or takes part in the situation.

What are the strengthsof participant observation?

Strengths:

• Only way to study some behaviours (e.g. cults/gangs)

• Greater accuracy and detail → more valid conclusions

What are the weaknesses of participant observation?

Weaknesses:

• Difficult to find time/privacy to record → reliance on memory → loss of detail/quotes

• Risk of loss of objectivity and bias → selective reporting → reduced validity

• Researcher presence may influence behaviour → reduced validity

What is non-participant observation?

An observation where the researcher does not join the group or take part.

What are the strengths of non-participant observation?

Strengths:

• Easier to remain objective → increased validity

• Less researcher effect → behaviour less influenced

What are the weaknesses of non-participant observation?

Weaknesses:

• Ethical issues if participants unaware (consent, right to withdraw)

• Less detail and accuracy → behaviours may be misinterpreted → reduced validity

What is structured observation?

Uses a predetermined coding scheme to record behaviour → produces quantitative data.

What are the strengths of structured observation?

Strengths:

• Easier to record → clear focus → increased validity

• Easier to establish inter-rater reliability → improved replicability

What are the weaknesses of structured observation?

Weaknesses:

• May miss important behaviours → reduced validity

• Observer bias → behaviours interpreted to fit categories → reduced validity

What is unstructured observation?

No checklist → all behaviour recorded in as much detail as possible → often qualitative data.

What are the strengths of unstructured observation?

Strengths:

• Increased validity → captures full range of behaviour

• Applicable to a wide range of contexts

What are the weaknesses of unstructured observation?

Weaknesses:

• Harder to record → behaviours may be missed → reduced validity

• Harder to establish reliability → difficult to replicate

• Observer bias → selective recording → reduced validity

What is event sampling?

A target behaviour is identified, and the observer records it every time it occurs.

What are the strengths of event sampling?

Strengths:

• Records are easy to obtain and analyse → total number of behaviours clearly seen

• Makes analysis quick and easy, especially for most/least common behaviours

• More reliable as events are planned → easy to replicate

What are the weaknesses of event sampling?

Weaknesses:

• May miss important behaviours not included in planned events → reduced validity

• If many events occur at once → behaviours may not be recorded → reduced validity

• Gives no indication of time spent on behaviours → less valid conclusions

What is time sampling?

Recording behaviour in a series of fixed time intervals.

What are the strengths of time sampling?

Strengths:

• Less likely to miss behaviours → short focus periods improve accuracy

• Gives indication of time spent on behaviours

What are the weaknesses of time sampling?

Weaknesses:

• Behaviours outside intervals are not recorded → reduced validity

• Difficult if many behaviours occur at once

• Can miss behaviours not coded for → reduced validity

What is instantaneous scan sampling

• Record behaviour at the start of each preset interval

• Ignore behaviour at all other times

Example: Record at 10, 20, 30 seconds whether behaviour is:

• Aggression

• Non-aggression

• Interaction

What is predominant activity sampling?

• Observe behaviour throughout the whole interval

• Record the behaviour that occurred most during that time

What is one-zero sampling?

• Record whether behaviours occurred or not within the time period

• Multiple behaviours can all be recorded if they occur

What are coding frames?

• Allow for more specific behaviours within a category

• Use codes/abbreviations

• Can record severity or subtype of behaviour

Example:

• Behaviour: Kicking, Punching

• Code: KFK (Kung Fu Kick)

• Severity: K1–K5

What is inter-rater reliability?

When researchers observe the same behaviour and code it in the same way.

Low inter-rater reliability suggests:

• Coding is vague or lacks validity

• Observers are not observing the same event

What are the strengths of observations overall?

Strengths:

• Shows how people actually behave, not how they say they behave

• Can study variables unethical to manipulate (e.g. prison behaviour)

• Useful as a pilot to generate hypotheses

What are the weaknesses of observations overall?

Weaknesses:

• Difficult to replicate

• Only shows behaviour, not thoughts/feelings

• No manipulation → cannot establish cause and effect

• Time-consuming and requires careful preparation

What is observer bias?

Occurs when the observer knows the aims/hypotheses and this influences their observations.

What is evaluation apprehension?

Participants’ behaviour is distorted because they fear being judged by observers.

How can validity be increased in observations?

• Use covert observation → reduces observer effect

• Use double blind observations → reduces observer bias

• Use clearly operationalised coding system

How can reliability be increased in observations?

• Use clearly operationalised coding system

• Check inter-rater reliability

• Train researchers to ensure consistent understanding

• Conduct a pilot study to check behavioural categories