Progressive Era (1900-1920)

Progressive Era (1900–1920)

Reform movement responding to wealth inequality, exploitation by monopolies and trusts, political corruption, and lack of economic opportunity; aimed to increase government honesty, expand democracy, regulate big business, conserve natural resources, and promote social justice.

Muckrakers

Journalists and authors who “raked the muck” by exposing corruption, corporate abuse, political machines, and unsafe living and working conditions, helping fuel Progressive reforms.

Ida Tarbell

Author of The Standard Oil Company; exposed Rockefeller’s trust and revealed monopolistic abuses, strengthening public support for trust-busting.

Lincoln Steffens

Author of The Shame of the Cities; exposed corruption, bribery, and voter intimidation by urban political machines.

Upton Sinclair

Author of The Jungle; exposed immigrant hardships and unsanitary meatpacking conditions, prompting federal food and drug regulation.

William McKinley (1897–1901, Republican)

Not a Progressive; assassinated in 1901, elevating Theodore Roosevelt to the presidency.

Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909, Republican, Progressive reformer favoring corporate responsibility and federal regulation)

Youngest president; promoted the Square Deal, trust regulation, conservation, expanded presidential power, and asserted U.S. global influence; believed in distinguishing between “good” and “bad” trusts.

Square Deal

Roosevelt’s domestic program promising to balance competing interests—labor, business, and the public—to ensure fairness for all.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)

Federal law used by Roosevelt to prosecute monopolies like Northern Securities; signaled that the government would regulate big business in the public interest.

Northern Securities Case (1902–1904)

Roosevelt sued the railroad monopoly; the Supreme Court ruled for the government, reinforcing federal authority over trusts.

Elkins Act (1903)

Ended railroad rebates to favored companies, strengthening federal regulation of railroads and promoting fair competition.

Hepburn Act (1906)

Expanded ICC authority to regulate railroad rates, increasing federal control over interstate commerce.

Panic of 1907

Financial crisis following failure of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company; Roosevelt allowed U.S. Steel to purchase it and used federal funds to stabilize banks, demonstrating pragmatic cooperation with business to protect the economy.

Conservation Policy (Roosevelt)

Established national parks and preserved public lands; asserted federal responsibility for managing natural resources for future generations.

Meat Inspection Act (1906)

Established federal inspection of meatpacking plants after The Jungle exposed unsanitary conditions; protected public health and expanded federal regulatory power.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Prohibited adulterated or mislabeled food and drugs; increased consumer protection and federal oversight.

Russo-Japanese War Mediation (1904–1905)

Roosevelt negotiated the Treaty of Portsmouth, earning the Nobel Peace Prize and elevating U.S. global prestige.

Great White Fleet (1907–1909)

U.S. naval world tour demonstrating American military strength and global power.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)

Agreement between the United States and Britain granting the U.S. exclusive rights to build and control an interoceanic canal, provided it remained open to all nations.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)

Agreement granting the United States a ten-mile-wide canal zone in Panama for $10 million plus annual payments and guarantees of Panamanian independence; enabled construction of the Panama Canal.

Panama Canal (completed 1914)

Engineering project connecting Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; advanced U.S. global power and international trade while contributing to medical advances against malaria.

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

Addition to the Monroe Doctrine asserting U.S. right to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability and protect American interests; justified expanded U.S. intervention.

William Howard Taft (1909–1913, Republican, conservative-leaning Progressive favoring congressional leadership and protective tariffs)

Continued Progressive reforms but aligned increasingly with Old Guard Republicans; prosecuted more trusts than Roosevelt but lost support due to tariff policy and conservation disputes.

Mann-Elkins Act (1910)

Empowered ICC to suspend and set railroad rates and extended regulation to telephones, telegraphs, and radio; strengthened federal regulatory authority.

16th Amendment (ratified 1913)

Authorized federal income tax; reflected Progressive goal of tax reform and revenue fairness.

17th Amendment (ratified 1913)

Established direct election of U.S. Senators; expanded democratic participation.

Trust-Busting under Taft

Prosecution of Standard Oil, American Tobacco, American Sugar Refining Company, and U.S. Steel; intensified antitrust enforcement but created rift with Roosevelt.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909)

Slightly reduced import duties but largely upheld high protective tariffs; angered Progressives and split the Republican Party.

Dollar Diplomacy

Taft’s foreign policy promoting American investment abroad to expand commercial influence while using military intervention when necessary; increased Latin American resentment.

Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921, Democrat, Progressive advocating tariff reduction, banking reform, and “New Freedom”)

Expanded presidential activism, reduced tariffs, reformed banking and antitrust laws, promoted moral diplomacy, led U.S. through World War I, and proposed the Fourteen Points and League of Nations.

Election of 1912

Three-way race between Wilson (New Freedom), Roosevelt (New Nationalism, Bull Moose Party), and Taft; Republican split enabled Wilson’s victory.

Underwood Tariff (1913)

Reduced average tariff rates from 41% to 27% and implemented the first federal income tax following the 16th Amendment; advanced tariff reform and revenue equity.

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

Created a central banking system with twelve regional banks and a Federal Reserve Board to regulate interest rates and money supply; aimed to prevent economic crises and provide elastic currency.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914)

Strengthened antitrust laws by prohibiting price-fixing and interlocking directorates and exempting labor unions from prosecution; advanced fair competition and labor protection.

Federal Trade Commission Act (1914)

Created the FTC to investigate and publicize unfair business practices; protected small businesses and consumers.

Mexican Intervention (1914–1917)

Wilson refused to recognize Huerta, seized Veracruz, and sent General John J. Pershing to pursue Pancho Villa; demonstrated moral diplomacy and interventionism.

Zimmermann Telegram (1917)

German proposal encouraging Mexico to ally against the United States in exchange for lost territories; intensified American support for entering World War I.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1914)

Wilson’s declaration urging Americans to remain neutral at the outbreak of World War I.

Selective Service Act (1917)

Established a draft, bringing 2.8 million men into military service; expanded federal authority during wartime.

Fourteen Points (1918)

Wilson’s plan for lasting peace including open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, self-determination, arms reduction, and creation of the League of Nations; aimed to prevent future wars.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Peace treaty ending World War I; imposed territorial losses, military restrictions, war guilt, and $32 billion reparations on Germany; included League of Nations; opposed by Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge, leading to U.S. rejection and non-membership in the League.

League of Nations (1919)

International organization proposed by Wilson to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity of nations; U.S. failure to join weakened its effectiveness.