Developmental Psychology, Attachment, Parenting, & Gender Development quiz, Erikson and Adolescent

developmental psychology

The scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age including physical, cognitive, and social development

What are the three major issues of Theory of Development

1. Nature/Nurture

2. Continuity/Stages

3. Critical Periods

Nature/Nurture

the question of how much of what we are is due to biological factors, such as genetics and maturation (nature position) and how much of what we are is due to environmental factors, such as experiences and culture (nurture position.)

Continuity/Stages

does development occur as a smooth, gradual increase (continuity) or does it have periods of rapid change followed by plateaus (stages).The answer depends on what abilities in which you are interested

Critical Periods

do we have to have particular experiences within particular windows of time for particular abilities to develop (critical period) or does the timing of experiences not matter in development? Again, answer depends on what in which abilities you are interested

What are the reasons to study human development

● Helps You Better Understand Yourself

● Learn More About Your Future Children

● Better Understand How to Interact with Kids

● Greater Appreciation of Development Throughout Life

● Allows Us to Understand What's Normal, and What's Not

Cross-Sectional

Type of study in which people of different ages are examined at the same time(s)

● Researchers examine how people of different ages perform, behave, or respond to a particular function

Longitudinal

Study follows the same group of people over a period of time from months to many years in order to evaluate changes in those individuals

Cross-Sequential

Individuals in across-sectional sample are tested more than once over a specified period of time

● Method used to combine longitudinal design and cross-sectional design (minimize the major drawbacks)

Advantages of Cross-Sectional

Gives info abt age differences

Quick

Less expensive

Typically larger sample

Advantages of Longitudinal

Give info abt age changes

Increases reliability

More in-depth info per participant

Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional

Cohort effect are difficult to separate

Restricted generalizability (measure behaviors at only one point in time)

Disadvantages of Longitudinal

More expensive

Time consuming

Restricted generalizability (typically smaller sample and dropouts over time)

Time period for Germinal Stage

Conception up until 2 weeks

Germinal Stage

The fertilized egg, known as a zygote moves toward the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete.

● Rapid cell division including chromosomes and genetic DNA sequence

● Nearly 60% of natural conceptions fail to implant

● After implantation, the placenta and umbilical cord begins to form

Embryonic Stage Time Period

3 to 8 weeks

Embryonic Stage

The inner cells become an embryo.

● Zygote attaches to the uterine wall (implantation)

● Heart begins to beat (3wks)

● organs begin to form and function (4wks)

● 6 - 7 wks formation of neurons; 100,000/min

Most susceptible to teratogens

Teratogen

Any non genetic agent that produces birth defects at exposures that commonly occur

1. Stress

2. Alcohol - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

3. Smoking Nicotine/Marijuana - SIDS

4. Prescription/Illegal Drugs

Fetal stage Time Period

8 weeks(ossification) until birth

Fetal stage

During the fetal stage the transition to trimesters occurs.

9 wks sex differentiation; by 12 weeks external sex organs are apparent

2nd trimester: (13 - 24 weeks) The period of most rapid growth. By the 4th or 5th month, the mother can feel fetal movements.

Age of viability is 22 - 26 weeks

Age of viability

The age when the developing fetus may survive outside of the womb. Currently, this is 22 - 26 weeks

Third Trimester (apart of fetal stage)

25 - 38 weeks

"Finishing touches."

Cerebral hemispheres become easily distinguished; myelination (coating of neurons with fatty substance) begins to occur.

Main focus is weight gain - fetuses gain approximately 4 - 5 pounds during the 3rd trimester, most of it all fat.

The fetus becomes more responsive to external stimuli (particularly sounds)during this trimester

Approximately 5% of fetuses do not survive

Brain Development

The infant brain is immature at birth, although it is the organ closest to its adult size at birth...

◦ 7th month prenatally: 10% size of adult brain

◦ birth: 25 - 30%

◦ 2nd birthday: 70 - 75%

◦ 3 yrs: 80%

◦ by 5 or 6 yrs: about 90% of adult brain size

Experience & Its Effect on Brain Development

Although we are born with basically all of our neurons already created, brain "growth" comes from more elaborate connections (and myelin sheath development).

Theory of mind

understanding that others' points of view affect their behavior; develops between 3 to 5 years of age

Cognitive Development

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Fixed, Distinct, Cannot be Accelerated

● Necessary of Biological Maturation

● Young Children are incapable of Adult Logic

Schema

Concept or frame work that organizes and interprets information

● Children form schemas as they experience new situations and events

Ex: Schema of a four legged animal

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Ex: Child sees cat and calls it a dog bcs of past schema

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings (schemas)to incorporate new information

Ex: Child accommodates its schema of four legged animals

What are the four stages of Piaget's Stages in Cognitive Development?

◦ Sensorimotor

◦ Preoperational

◦ Concrete Operational

◦ Formal Operational

Sensorimotor Stage

Description of Stage: Birth to about 2 years

Schemas through action; world of here and now; infants understand the world by doing.

Concepts of Sensorimotor stage

Lack of Object permanence, Stanger Anxiety, and Assimilation

Lack of Object Permanence

Objects still exist after they are no longer in sight ("Peek-a-Boo")● Infants eight-months old or10 months younger tend not to have this ability

Preoperational Stage

2-6 or 7 years old

Child learns to use language, can use symbols and intuitive rather than logical reasoning

Concepts of Preoperational Stage

make-believe/pretend play

Accommodation

Egocentrism

Animism

Conservation

Egocentrism

Unable to see from another's perspective

Animism

Belief that everything has feelings, thoughts, and can talk

Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in form

Concrete Operational Stage

7-12 years old

Children gain the mental operations that enable logical thinking about concrete events

Reversibility

Reversibility

The ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition

Formal Operational Stage

12 years-Adulthood (though not everyone reaches this stage)

Children begin to think logically about abstract/hypothetical concepts

Abstract logic

Abstract logic

If/then, systematic, abstract thought: ponder hypothetical propositions and deduce consequences, systematic reasoning

Piaget's Theory disadvantages

UNDERESTIMATE children's cognitive abilities and OVERESTIMATE children's understanding of language. He also didn't take in account genetic and cultural influences on thought.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Attachment theory

Infants are biologically predisposed to form bonds with primary caregivers in early life as a means to increase their likelihood of survival

Cupboard theories of attachment

attachment depends on the mom as food source - the behavioristic and psychoanalytic perspectives

Harry Harlow (1959)

-Showed that it is not true that attachment depends on providing food

-Harlow presented Rhesus monkeys with two foster mothers

-One was cover in wire and provided milk, the other had monkeyish features and warmed by a light bulb placed inside it

-Baby monkeys preferred warmed foster mother.

Deprivation of Attachment

-Baby monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth mother, only approaching the wire monkey for food

-In fearful/ambiguous situations, the baby monkeys ran to the terry cloth mother and clung to her

-When the terry cloth mother was removed from the cage, the baby monkeys demonstrated extreme distress

Attachment theory extra information

● Attachment is defined by the showing of distress by the child in the absence of the attached figure and using the attached figure as a "safe base" for exploring the environment.

● Distress at the absence of the caregiver is strongest in novel or unfamiliar environments.

● Attachment becomes stronger around 8 months (when infants become mobile.)

● The attachment relationship also serves as the vehicle for learning about social interactions.

Mary Ainsworth

Psychologist that found that attachment happens through a complex set of interactions between mothers and infants

-Designed the strange situation experiments

Strange situation experiment

Secure Attachment

Behavior When Caregiver Left Baby

● Upset; cries and refuses to be comforted by stranger

Behavior When Caregiver Returns

● Makes effort to touch care giver and returns to playing

Mother Characteristics

● Sensitive and responsive mothers

*70 percent of infants display secure attachment

Avoidant (insecure) Attachment

Behavior When Caregiver Left Baby

● Indifferent

Behavior When Caregiver Returns

● Indifferent; may seek contact but then pull away

Mother Characteristics

● Insensitive and unresponsive mothers

Ambivalent Attachment

Behavior When Caregiver Left Baby

● Very Distressed

Behavior When Caregiver Returns

● Ambivalent and resentful of caregiver

Mother Characteristics

● Mother is engaged on her own needs

Disorganized/disoriented

odd behavior, such as freezing, running from parent, etc. Thought to typically occur in abusive relationships.

Diana Baumrind

Identified different parenting styles

Based on amounts of control and nurturance shown by parents(also, communication and maturity)

Authoritarian

Restrictive parenting style

Authoritarian parent characteristics

● Extremely strict and highly controlling through punishment.

● Limited communication

● Offers the child limited love and warmth.

Authoritarian Child Characteristics

little independence; males aggressive, females dependent; lower self-esteem; fewer social skills

Permissive Indulgent

Few and inconsistent rules and a relaxed attitude to parenting that is more like a friend than a parent

Permissive Indulgent Parent Characteristics

provides few expectations and rules and allows the child to make their own decisions.

Permissive Indulgent Child Characteristics

immature; lack social responsibility; low self-control; impulsive

Indifferent/Uninvolved

The parent is generally uninvolved in their children's lives.

Indifferent/Uninvolved Parent Characteristics

parents needs are seen as more important than child's; ignore child; does not seem to care about child

Indifferent/Uninvolved Child Characteristics

low self-esteem; higher aggressiveness; low impulse control

Authoritative

The parent establishes clear limits and provides explanations for consequences

Authoritative Parent Characteristics

based on reason; permits independence but values obedience; imposes regulations but allows discussion

Authoritative Child Characteristics

independent; higher self-control; well-liked; competent

Factors to Keep in Mind Regarding Parenting Styles

Parenting styles show developmental characteristics

The research on child outcomes tends to ignore the differences in parenting styles within a marriage or other child-rearing environments with multiple caregivers.

Stressful life-changes (divorce, job loss) are associated with a authoritarian parenting style

Sex

biological maleness or femaleness including chromosomal sex

Gender

psychological and sociocultural meanings added to biological sex

Gender Identity (self-defined)

self-identification as either a male or a female; knowing if you are a male or a female (seen by 2 - 3 years)

Gender role(socially-defined)

societal expectations for normal and appropriate male and female behavior; knowing the behaviors that society expects from males and females(also seen by 2 - 3 years)

Gender typing

-the formation of gender role

-Families, other adults and peers, and the media have incredibly strong influences on gender typing

Families and Gender Typing

-Parents provide different life experiences for their male and their female children.

-Boys are more gender-typed than females.

-Fathers are particularly active in terms of encouraging gender-typical behaviors, especially for their male children

Teacher and Gender Typing

Teachers hold and express gender role expectations

Peers and Gender Typing

Peers will actively reinforce and punish gender role behavior. Once again, this is particularly true for males.

Males that frequently engage in cross-gender activities tend to be ignored by their male peers even when they are engaging in masculine activities.

Media and Gender Typing

Media, particularly television, subtly and blatantly present gender expectations in terms of occupation, personality, lifestyle choices, etc.

Erick Erikson

● Erikson was a student of Freud's)

● He felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on sexual energies and basically ignored the importance of social interactions.

psychosocial development

Each stage in life has its own psychosocial task/issue that must be encountered and resolved.

● Although Erikson uses the term "vs" in his stage labels, the outcome isn't "either/or" but rather somewhere between the two, leaning more heavily to one side or the other

Trust vs. Mistrust Psychosocial Stage

Infant

0-18 months

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants learn if the world is hostile or friendly based on if needs are met. Infants develop a sense of security (trust). Babies with inconsistent parents, who sometimes feed them when they cry and other times yell. Learn people/ the world cannot be trusted (mistrust)

Autonomy vs. Shame Psychosocial Stage

Toddler

18 months-3 years old

Autonomy vs. Shame

Toddlers are given opportunities to show control over own world develop independence(autonomy) and become self-assured. Toddlers who fail doubt their abilities, experience humiliation (shame), and act impulsively.

Trust vs. Mistrust "Good/Bad ending"

Good Ending: I can rely on others (TRUST)

Bad Ending: Insecurity and anxiety (MISTRUST)

Autonomy vs. Shame "Good/Bad ending"

Good Ending: I am my own person(AUTONOMY)

Bad Ending: Helpless to change things (SHAME)

Initiative vs. Guilt Psychosocial Stage

Preschool Age

3-6 years old

Initiative vs. Guilt

If a child is supported in attempts to originate(initiate) activities, they develop confidence indecision-making.

If a child is criticized or prevented by overprotective parents or adults from taking responsibility, they develop anxiousness and fear (guilt)

Initiative vs. Guilt "Good/Bad ending"

Good Ending: I can make things happen(INITIATIVE)

Bad Ending: l lack self-worth (GUILT)

Industry vs. Inferiority Psychosocial Stage

Elementary School Age

6-12 years old

Industry vs. Inferiority

Children who master knowledge and social skills develop sense of competence (industry), which results in high self-esteem.

Children who have problems learning or mastering social skills may develop a sense of inadequacy and disappointment (inferiority),which results in low self-esteem.

Industry vs. Inferiority "Good/Bad ending"

Good Ending: Has confidence because they are capable (INDUSTRY)

Bad Ending: Lack self-confidence (INFERIORITY)

Identity vs. Role Confusion Psychosocial Stage

Adolescence

12-18 years Old

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescents who determine who they are and their strengths and weaknesses develop a strong sense of self (identity) providing a solid basis for future development.

Adolescents with a weak sense of self and are unsure about how they fit into the world (role confusion).