PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA & EUROPEAN CONTACT

Peopling of North America

• Migration via Bering Land Bridge (c. 15,000–20,000 years ago): The land bridge, exposed during the Ice Age, enabled the first humans to migrate from Asia into North America. These early populations spread across the continent, adapting to diverse environments.

  • They believe that Asians were the first to arrive in North America.

• Clovis Culture: One of the earliest identifiable Native American cultures, known for their distinctive stone spear points.

  • Evidence of Clovis artifacts suggested a widespread hunter-gatherer society.

• Regional Adaptations:

  • Great Plains: Nomadic tribes hunted bison using tools and communal techniques.

  • Eastern Woodlands: Developed agriculture, cultivating crops like maize and building longhouses.

  • Pacific Northwest: Thrived on fishing, whaling, and woodworking, creating complex social hierarchies.

  • Southwest: Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) built irrigation systems for arid farming, constructing cliff dwellings and pueblos.

Columbian Exchange

• Definition: A global exchange of plants, animals, goods, people, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds initiated by European exploration.

• Impact on Europe:

  • Diets diversified with the introduction of crops like maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and cacao, leading to population growth.

  • New wealth from American resources (e.g., gold, silver) funded European wars and economic expansion.

• Impact on the Americas:

  • Introduction of livestock (horses, cattle, pigs) revolutionized agriculture and transportation.

  • Diseases (smallpox, measles) decimated Indigenous populations, with mortality rates reaching up to 90% in some regions.

• Impact on Africa:

  • Expanded transatlantic slave trade, as African labor was exploited to support sugar and tobacco plantations in the Americas.

  • Shift in African economies as coastal kingdoms gained wealth from trading enslaved people.

The Importance of Maize

• Foundation of Indigenous Civilizations:

  • First domesticated in Mesoamerica around 9,000 years ago, maize became the cornerstone of societies like the Maya, Aztec, and Inca.

  • Allowed population growth and urban development due to its high caloric yield and storage potential.

• Spread to North America:

  • Reached the American Southwest by 2100 BCE, transforming hunter-gatherer societies into agricultural communities.

  • Supported the rise of complex societies, such as the Mississippian culture (e.g., Cahokia).

• Cultural Significance:

  • Maize was central to spiritual practices, trade, and social organization in many Native American cultures.

Spanish, French, and English Colonial Policies

Spanish

• Motives: Gold, Glory, God. The Spanish sought wealth, territorial expansion, and the spread of Catholicism.

• Encomienda System: Granted Spanish settlers control over Native labor in exchange for Christianizing them, often leading to exploitation and abuse.

• Caste System: A hierarchical racial classification system in Spanish colonies, with peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) at the top, criollos (pure Spanish descent, born in New land), mestizos (Mix between Native and Spanish/Euro blood), mulattoes (mix between African and Spanish/Euro blood), and enslaved Africans and Native Americans at the bottom.

• Mission System: Catholic missions were established to convert Indigenous populations, often erasing native cultures and practices.

French

• Motives: Focused on trade (especially fur) and forming alliances with Native tribes.

• Relationships with Natives:

  • Relatively cooperative compared to other Europeans.

  • Built strong trade partnerships with groups like the Algonquin and Huron, aiding in mutual defense against the Iroquois Confederacy.

• Settlement Patterns: Sparse settlements in Canada and along the Mississippi River, emphasizing trade over large-scale colonization.

English

• Motives: Search for economic opportunities, land acquisition, and religious freedom.

• Settler-Colonialism: English settlers established permanent communities, often displacing Native populations.

• Diverse Colonial Models:

  • Chesapeake (Virginia): Tobacco plantations dependent on indentured servitude and later African slavery.

  • New England: Pilgrims and Puritans established tight-knit, religiously driven communities.

  • Middle Colonies: Known for religious tolerance and economic diversity (e.g., Quakers in Pennsylvania).

COLONIAL AMERICA

Reasons for English Colonization

• Economic Opportunities:

  • Access to natural resources and fertile land, particularly for cash crops like tobacco.

  • Search for gold and trade routes spurred by the success of Spanish conquests.

  • Economic hardships in England, such as unemployment and overpopulation, prompted migration.

• Religious Freedom:

  • Puritans and Pilgrims sought to escape religious persecution and establish communities based on their beliefs.

  • Quakers, Catholics, and other groups fled England seeking refuge in colonies like Pennsylvania and Maryland.

• Political Motivations:

  • Establishing a stronghold in the New World to rival Spanish and French dominance.

  • English monarchs promoted colonization to enhance England's global influence.

Jamestown (1607)

• First Permanent English Colony:

  • Founded by the Virginia Company in present-day Virginia.

    • The Virginia Company was formed both to bring profit to its shareholders and to establish an English colony in the New World.

      • The Company, under the direction of its treasurer Sir Thomas Smith, was instructed to colonize land between the 34th and 41st northern parallel.

  • Early struggles included harsh winters, lack of food, and conflicts with the Powhatan Confederacy.

• John Smith & Survival: His leadership helped the colony endure through improved discipline and relations with Native Americans.

• Tobacco Boom: John Rolfe's cultivation of tobacco turned Jamestown into a profitable enterprise, spurring economic growth and labor demands.

• Significance: Introduced the headright system to attract settlers, and laid the groundwork for representative government with the creation of the House of Burgesses (1619).

  • The headright system referred to a grant of land, usually fifty acres per immigrant sponsored, given to landowners throughout the thirteen colonies.

  • The headright system originated in Jamestown, Virginia Colony in 1618, but eventually spread to the other colonies.

Anne Hutchinson (1637)

• Challenge to Religious Orthodoxy: A Puritan spiritual leader in Massachusetts Bay Colony, Hutchinson held unauthorized Bible study meetings, questioning the clergy's authority.

  • Considered one of the earliest American feminists, Anne Hutchinson was a spiritual leader in colonial Massachusetts who challenged male authority—and, indirectly, acceptable gender roles—by preaching to both women and men and by questioning Puritan teachings about salvation.

• Trial and Banishment: Accused of heresy, she was banished for advocating the idea of direct divine revelation and undermining Puritan leadership.

• Impact: Her case highlighted tensions between individual liberty and theocratic control, paving the way for greater religious tolerance in New England.

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)

• Cause: Nathaniel Bacon led a revolt against Virginia's Governor William Berkeley due to grievances over land access, Native American policies, and perceived favoritism toward elites.

• Event: Bacon and his followers burned Jamestown and attacked Native tribes, seeking more land for settlers.

• Result: The rebellion collapsed after Bacon's death. It exposed the growing divide between wealthy planters and landless settlers.

• Significance:

  • Led to a shift from indentured servitude to African slavery as a more controllable labor force.

  • Marked a turning point in colonial attitudes toward governance and class conflict.

Leisler’s Rebellion (1689–1691)

• Context: Triggered by the Glorious Revolution in England, which overthrew King James II, and dissatisfaction with colonial elites.

• Event: Jacob Leisler, a militia captain, seized control of New York's government in the name of William and Mary. He ruled for two years before being arrested and executed for treason.

• Significance:

  • Revealed tensions between wealthy landowners and middle-class merchants.

  • Highlighted colonial resistance to perceived aristocratic control.

Slavery in Colonial America

• Origins:

  • First African slaves arrived in Jamestown in 1619.

  • Expanded as labor demands grew for tobacco, sugar, and rice plantations.

• Codification:

  • Slave codes institutionalized racial slavery, stripping enslaved Africans of rights and legally defining them as property.

• Regional Variations:

  • Chesapeake: Tobacco plantations relied heavily on enslaved labor.

  • Southern Colonies: Larger plantations cultivated rice and indigo, with brutal working conditions.

  • Northern Colonies: Slavery was less widespread, focused on domestic work and small farms, but played a role in maritime industries.

• Resistance: Enslaved people resisted through revolts (e.g., Stono Rebellion, 1739), work slowdowns, and maintaining cultural traditions.

First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s)

• Religious Revival Movement:

  • Emphasized personal salvation, emotional preaching, and the need for individual repentance.

  • Key figures included Jonathan Edwards ("Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God") and George Whitefield.

• Impact:

  • Fostered new denominations, such as Baptists and Methodists.

  • Challenged traditional church authority, encouraging individualism and questioning social hierarchies.

  • Contributed to a sense of shared American identity.

Mercantilism

• Economic Theory: Colonies existed to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and serving as markets for manufactured goods.

• Navigation Acts: Enforced colonial trade with England, limiting economic independence.

  • Colonists could only trade certain goods (e.g., tobacco, sugar) with England.

• Effects on Colonies:

  • Spurred resentment over restricted trade and economic exploitation.

  • Encouraged smuggling and early resistance to British control.

Enlightenment (17th–18th Century)

• Intellectual Movement: Emphasized reason, science, and individual rights over tradition and religious authority.

• Key Thinkers: John Locke (natural rights, social contract), Montesquieu (separation of powers).

• Impact on Colonies:

  • Inspired political ideas like liberty, equality, and self-governance.

  • Influenced revolutionary leaders, shaping the ideological foundation of the American Revolution.

  • Encouraged advancements in science and education.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION & INDEPENDENCE

Proclamation of 1763

• Cause: Issued by King George III following the French and Indian War to prevent westward colonial expansion and avoid conflicts with Native Americans.

• Content: Prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains.

• Impact:

  • Angered colonists who sought to expand westward for land and resources.

  • Marked the beginning of growing colonial resentment toward British authority (Proclamation of 1763)

Stamp Act (1765)

• Purpose: A British tax on paper goods, legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards to raise revenue after the French and Indian War.

• Colonial Reaction:

  • Outrage over taxation without representation.

  • Formation of the Stamp Act Congress, where colonies united to protest the tax.

  • Widespread boycotts and the rise of groups like the Sons of Liberty, who used protests and intimidation tactics.

• Result: Repealed in 1766, but followed by the Declaratory Act asserting British authority over the colonies.

Navigation Acts (1651–1760s)

• Purpose: Enforced mercantilism by regulating colonial trade to benefit England.

• Key Provisions:

  • Colonists could only export certain goods (e.g., tobacco, sugar) to England.

  • Trade with foreign nations was restricted unless goods passed through England first.

• Impact:

  • Fostered colonial resentment and smuggling as colonies sought economic independence.

  • Contributed to the eventual breakdown of the relationship between Britain and the colonies.

Virtual vs. Direct Representation

• Virtual Representation: British Parliament claimed it represented all British subjects, including colonists, even without colonial representatives in Parliament.

• Direct Representation: Colonists demanded direct, elected representatives to voice their interests in legislative decisions.

• Significance: The dispute over representation fueled colonial protests, reinforcing the rallying cry of “No taxation without representation.”

Salutary Neglect

• Definition: A period (early 1700s) when Britain loosely enforced colonial trade regulations and allowed colonies significant autonomy in local governance.

• Impact:

  • Enabled the colonies to develop self-governing institutions and economic independence.

  • Salutary neglect ended when the British started placing and reinforcing restrictions and tax policies on the colonies following the French and Indian War.

Olive Branch Petition (1775)

• Purpose: A final attempt by the Second Continental Congress to reconcile with King George III and avoid war. The Olive Branch Petition was adopted by Congress on July 5, 1775, to be sent to the King as a last attempt to prevent formal war from being declared.

• Content: Affirmed colonial loyalty to Britain while requesting the repeal of oppressive laws. The Petition emphasized their loyalty to the British crown and emphasized their rights as British citizens.

• Response: Rejected by the king, who declared the colonies in rebellion, solidifying the path toward independence.

Turning Point Battles

• Battle of Saratoga (1777):

  • Marked the first major American victory, convincing France to formally ally with the colonies.

  • Boosted American morale and international legitimacy.

• Battle of Yorktown (1781):

  • British General Cornwallis surrendered after being surrounded by American and French forces.

  • EFFECTIVELY ended the Revolutionary War and led to the Treaty of Paris (1783).

French Aid to Colonies

• Key Contributions:

  • Financial and military support, including troops, weapons, and the French navy.

  • Figures like Marquis de Lafayette played crucial roles in training and leading American forces.

• Significance: French assistance was instrumental in securing key victories, particularly at Saratoga and Yorktown.

Articles of Confederation (1781)

• First U.S. Government: Established a weak central government with most power retained by the states.

• Weaknesses:

  • Lack of power to tax or regulate interstate commerce.

  • No executive or judiciary to enforce laws or mediate disputes.

  • REQUIRED unanimous approval (all-states approval) for amendments.

• Impact: Exposed flaws in governance → leading to the Constitutional Convention (1787) and the creation of the U.S. Constitution.

Great Compromise (1787)

• Issue: Representation in Congress between large and small states.

• Solution:

  • Established a bicameral legislature:

    • House of Representatives: Representation based on population.

    • Senate: Equal representation (two senators per state).

• Significance: Balanced the interests of states with differing populations and preserved the union.

3/5 Compromise (1787)

• Issue: Whether enslaved people should count toward state populations for representation and taxation.

• Solution: Each enslaved individual would count as 3/5 of a person.

• Impact:

  • Temporarily resolved disputes between Northern and Southern states.

  • Increased Southern political power but sowed tensions that later contributed to the Civil War.

Republican Motherhood

• Concept: The belief that women played a key role in instilling republican values and civic virtue in their children.

• Impact:

  • Elevated the status of women by emphasizing their role as educators of future citizens.

  • Encouraged greater access to education for women.

  • Laid the groundwork for later movements advocating women's rights and suffrage.

EARLY REPUBLIC

Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)

• Content:

  • Warned against political parties, which he believed would divide the nation.

  • Advised against permanent foreign alliances, encouraging neutrality in international affairs.

  • Emphasized the importance of national unity and morality for a strong republic.

• Impact:

  • Influenced U.S. foreign policy for much of the 19th century, particularly the avoidance of European conflicts.

Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787)

• Cause: Economic hardships faced by farmers in Massachusetts, including high taxes and debts.

• Event: Led by Daniel Shays, armed farmers protested and attempted to shut down courts to prevent foreclosures.

• Impact:

  • Exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, particularly the lack of a strong central government to maintain order.

  • Prompted calls for the Constitutional Convention to create a stronger federal government.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

• Issue: William Marbury sued for his judicial appointment under the Judiciary Act of 1789, which was withheld by Secretary of State James Madison.

• Decision: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional, establishing judicial review.

• Significance: Strengthened the power of the judiciary by allowing courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

• Issue: Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States.

• Decision: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that:

  • Congress had the authority to create a national bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause.

    • Under the Necessary and Proper Clause, congressional power encompasses all implied and incidental powers that are conducive to the beneficial exercise of an enumerated power.

      • Enumerated powers: Powers granted to the Federal government, and specifically Congress.

  • States could not tax federal institutions, reinforcing the supremacy of federal law.

• Impact: Strengthened federal authority over state governments.

Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions (1798-1799)

• Authored by: Thomas Jefferson (Kentucky) and James Madison (Virginia).

  • The resolutions argued that the federal government had no authority to exercise power not specifically delegated to it in the Constitution. The ideas in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions became a precursor to John C. Calhoun’s SC Protest.

• Purpose: Protested the Alien and Sedition Acts, which they viewed as unconstitutional.

• Doctrine of Nullification: Argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws deemed unconstitutional.

• Significance: Early assertion of states' rights, foreshadowing future conflicts over federal versus state authority.

South Carolina Exposition and Protest (1828)

• Authored by: John C. Calhoun in opposition to the Tariff of Abominations (1828).

• Content:

  • Revived the doctrine of nullification, asserting that states could reject federal laws that harmed their interests.

  • Protested high tariffs, which benefited the North at the expense of the South.

• Impact: Contributed to sectional tensions that culminated in the Nullification Crisis (1832-1833).

  • The Nullification Crisis, which unfolded in the 1830s, centered on the conflict between federal authority and states' rights, exemplified by South Carolina's attempt to nullify federal tariffs and threat to secede from the Union, reflecting the growing sectional divide over economic interests and slavery.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• Negotiated by: Thomas Jefferson.

• Details: Acquired the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the size of the U.S.

• Significance:

  • Expanded U.S. territory westward, opening opportunities for settlement and agriculture.

  • Raised constitutional questions about presidential authority to purchase land.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

• Issue: Debate over the extension of slavery into new territories.

• Compromise:

  • Missouri admitted as a slave state and Maine as a free state to maintain the balance in the Senate.

  • Prohibited slavery north of the 36°30′ latitude in the Louisiana Territory, except Missouri.

• Impact: Temporarily resolved sectional tensions but highlighted the growing divide over slavery.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• Content: Declared that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to European colonization or intervention.

  • A policy set forth by President James Monroe indicating that further colonization by Europe in the Western Hemisphere would be considered a hostile act.

• Context: Aimed to protect newly independent Latin American nations from European interference.

• Impact:

  • Established the U.S. as a dominant power in the Americas.

  • Became a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy throughout the 19th century.

Jacksonian Democracy (1820s-1830s)

• Characteristics:

  • Expanded suffrage to all white men, eliminating property requirements.

  • Emphasized the common man’s role in politics, with a focus on majority rule.

  • Increased use of the spoils system, rewarding political supporters with government jobs.

• Impact:

  • Marked a shift toward a more inclusive, populist approach to politics (for white men).

  • Deepened conflicts over states’ rights, Native American policies, and economic issues like the Bank War.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

• Issue: The state of Georgia attempted to enforce laws on Cherokee land.

• Decision: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that:

  • The Cherokee Nation was a distinct political community and not subject to Georgia laws.

• Impact:

  • President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the ruling, leading to the Trail of Tears and further displacement of Native Americans.

  • Jackson essentially ignored the Supreme Court ruling.

Whigs (1830s-1850s)

• Formation: Opposed Andrew Jackson’s policies, particularly his opposition to the national bank and perceived executive overreach.

• Key Beliefs:

  • Supported a strong federal government, internal improvements, and economic modernization.

  • Favored protective tariffs and the national bank.

• Significance:

  • Represented a major political party during the Second Party System, rivalry between Whigs and Democrats.

  • Dissolved in the 1850s due to divisions over slavery, giving rise to the Republican Party.

ANTEBELLUM AMERICA AND MANIFEST DESTINY

Declaration of Sentiments (1848)

• Context: Issued at the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women’s rights convention.

• Modeled on: The Declaration of Independence, demanding equality for women.

• Content:

  • Listed grievances such as lack of voting rights, unequal education, and limited property rights.

  • Asserted that "all men and women are created equal."

• Impact: Marked the formal beginning of the women’s rights movement in the U.S.

Women’s Rights Movement

• Goals: Equal rights for women, including suffrage, property ownership, and education.

• Challenges: Faced resistance from traditional societal norms and slow political progress.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

• Role: Co-organized the Seneca Falls Convention and co-authored the Declaration of Sentiments.

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an American leader in the women's rights movement who, in 1848, formulated the first organized demand for woman suffrage in the United States.

• Legacy: Advocated for women’s suffrage, equal legal rights, and property laws for married women.

Susan B. Anthony

• Role: Partnered with Stanton in leading the women’s suffrage movement.

• Anthony traveled the country to give speeches, circulate petitions, and organize local women's rights organizations.

• Achievements:

  • Co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA).

  • Advocated for the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote.

Dorothea Dix

• Focus: She was a leading figure in those national and international movements that challenged the idea that people with mental disturbances could not be cured or helped.

• Dorothea Dix played an instrumental role in the founding or expansion of more than 30 hospitals for the treatment of the mentally ill.

• Achievements:

  • Persuaded states to establish mental hospitals.

  • Led efforts for humane treatment in prisons and poorhouses.

Abolition Movement

• Goal: End slavery in the U.S.

• Leaders: Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth.

• Frederick Douglass

  • Who he was: A formerly enslaved African American who became a powerful orator, writer, and leader in the abolitionist movement.

  • Contributions: Douglass wrote autobiographies detailing his life in slavery, including Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.

    • He traveled extensively, giving speeches about abolition and equality, and founded the abolitionist newspaper The North Star.

• William Lloyd Garrison

  • Who he was: A white abolitionist and journalist who became one of the most vocal advocates for immediate emancipation.

  • Contributions: Garrison published the anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator and co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society.

    • He believed slavery was a moral wrong and worked tirelessly to promote abolition through nonviolent means.

• Harriet Tubman

  • Who she was: An escaped enslaved woman who became a heroic figure in the abolitionist movement.

  • Contributions: Tubman is best known for her role as a "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, leading dozens of enslaved people to freedom.

    • During the Civil War, she also served as a scout, nurse, and spy for the Union Army.

• Sojourner Truth

  • Who she was: A formerly enslaved African American woman who became an influential speaker, abolitionist, and advocate for women's rights.

  • Contributions: Truth delivered powerful speeches, including her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, which addressed both racial and gender inequality.

    • She worked to promote abolition and equal rights for all, often drawing on her personal experiences.

• Tactics:

  • Publications like Garrison’s The Liberator.

  • Underground Railroad.

  • Petitioning Congress for abolition laws.

Temperance Movement

• Goal:
  To reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption in order to create a more moral, productive, and orderly society.

  Motivation:

  • Alcohol was seen as a major cause of social problems such as poverty, domestic violence, crime, and moral decay.

  • Heavy alcohol consumption was common in the 19th century, with men often spending wages on alcohol instead of supporting their families.

  • Many religious and reform leaders believed sobriety would lead to stronger family structures, greater economic stability, and moral uplift.

• Impact:

  • Led to the formation of organizations like the American Temperance Society.

  • Laid groundwork for Prohibition in the early 20th century.

  • Legislation: Laid the groundwork for local and state-level alcohol bans, which eventually culminated in Prohibition (1920–1933) with the passage of the 18th Amendment.

Stono Rebellion (1739)

• What: Largest slave uprising in the British colonies, near Charleston, South Carolina.

• Spanish Incentives: Spain, at the time, promised freedom to enslaved people who escaped to Spanish-controlled Florida, encouraging resistance in British colonies.

• Impact:

  1. Stricter Slave Codes: In response, South Carolina passed the Negro Act of 1740, which:

     • Restricted enslaved people’s movement, education, and ability to assemble.

     • Increased oversight and punishment for enslaved individuals.

  2. Fear of Future Revolts: The rebellion heightened fear among white colonists, leading to tighter control and surveillance of enslaved populations.

  3. Significance: The Stono Rebellion demonstrated the desire for freedom among enslaved Africans and became a symbol of resistance against oppression.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)

• What: Slave revolt led by Nat Turner in Virginia, resulting in the deaths of 55-65 white people.

• Impact:

  • Violent Retaliation: In the aftermath, Turner and over 50 rebels were captured and executed. White mobs and militias also retaliated by killing up to 200 Black people, many of whom had no involvement in the rebellion.

  • Nat Turner’s Legacy: Turner was tried, hanged, and his body was mutilated, but he remained a symbol of resistance to slavery.

  • Harsher Slave Laws: Southern states enacted stricter slave codes to prevent future revolts, including:

    • Banning education for enslaved people.

    • Restricting their ability to gather for worship.

    • Increasing surveillance and punishment.

  • Fear Among Slaveholders: The rebellion intensified fear among white slaveholders, leading to greater repression of enslaved communities and heightened tensions between North and South over the issue of slavery.

Manifest Destiny

• Definition: Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the North American continent.

• US President James K. Polk (1845-1849) is the leader most associated with Manifest Destiny.

• Justification: Framed as a divine right and duty to spread democracy and civilization.

• Impact:

  • Fueled westward expansion, including conflicts with Native Americans and Mexico.

  • Led to debates over slavery in new territories.

Fifty-Four Forty or Fight (1844)

• Slogan: The phrase "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" refers to a slogan used during the Oregon boundary dispute between the United States and Great Britain in the early 1840s. It does not involve a physical battle but was instead a political rallying cry.

  • The "54-40 or Fight" meaning was that the United States ought to claim all the territory up to 54 degrees and 40 minutes north parallel or fight Great Britain for the land.

• Outcome:

  • Compromise with Britain set the border at the 49th parallel.

  • Avoided conflict while securing land for the U.S.

Mexican War (1846-1848)

• Causes:

  • Disputes over Texas's southern border (Rio Grande vs. Nueces River).

  • U.S. annexation of Texas and desire for California.

• Outcome:

• U.S. victory led to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, adding California, Arizona, and New Mexico to the U.S.

  Causes: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (treaty ending Mex-Am war)

  1. Annexation of Texas (1845): The U.S. annexation of Texas angered Mexico, which still considered Texas its territory.

  2. Manifest Destiny: The U.S. sought to expand its territory across the North American continent.

  3. Border Disputes: Disagreements over the Texas border (Nueces River vs. Rio Grande) escalated tensions.

  4. Polk’s Expansionist Goals: President James K. Polk believed in westward expansion and sought California and other Mexican territories.

• The Rio Grande became the official U.S.-Mexico border.

• The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million for the territories.

• Heightened tensions over slavery in new territories.

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

• Proposed by: Congressman David Wilmot.

• Content: Sought to ban slavery in territories acquired from Mexico.

• Impact:

  • Failed to pass in the Senate but increased sectional tensions.

  • Highlighted the growing divide between the North and South over slavery.

Annexation of Texas (1845)

• Context: Texas declared independence from Mexico in 1836 but was delayed in joining the U.S. due to slavery debates.

• Outcome:

  • Texas joined as a slave state.

  • Provoked tensions with Mexico, contributing to the Mexican War.

Know-Nothing Party (1850s)

• Also Known As: The American Party.

• Platform:

  • Anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic.

  • Advocated for nativist policies, such as restrictions on immigration and naturalization.

  • They were popular for a little bit.

• Impact:

  • Gained temporary popularity but declined due to divisions over slavery.

CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

• Proposed by: Senator Stephen Douglas.

• Provisions:

  • Created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska.

  • Allowed popular sovereignty (residents decide on slavery).

  • Repealed the Missouri Compromise line (36°30′).

• Impact:

  • Led to violent clashes in “Bleeding Kansas.”

  • Increased sectional tensions between North and South.

Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)

• Case: Dred Scott, a slave, sued for his freedom after living in free territory.

• Ruling by Supreme Court:

  • Scott was not a citizen and could not sue.

  • Congress could not ban slavery in territories (declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional).

  • AFRICANS WERE NOT CONSIDERED CITIZENS.

• Impact: Infuriated abolitionists, heightened sectional tensions, and pushed the nation closer to Civil War.

Compromise of 1850

• Key Provisions:

  • California admitted as a free state.

  • Slave trade banned in Washington, D.C. (slavery itself still allowed).

  • Stronger Fugitive Slave Act enforced.

  • Popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico territories.

• Impact: Delayed the Civil War but intensified debates over slavery.

Union Advantages in the Civil War

1. Population: Larger population to draw soldiers and workers from.

2. Industrial Capacity:

   • Greater manufacturing capabilities for weapons and supplies.

   • Extensive railway network for transportation.

3. Naval Power: Blockaded Southern ports (Anaconda Plan).

4. Financial Stability: Established banking system and access to resources.

“Rich Man’s War, Poor Man’s Fight”

• Meaning: Criticism of class inequality during the Civil War.

  • Wealthy men could pay for substitutes to avoid the draft.

  • Confederate policies focused on protecting the interests of wealthy plantation owners.

• Example:

  • Union: $300 commutation fee to avoid conscription.

  • Confederate: Exemption for those owning 20+ slaves (the "Twenty Negro Law").

13th, 14th, 15th Amendments (Reconstruction Amendments)

1. 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in the United States. (abolition)

2. 14th Amendment (1868):

   • Granted citizenship to all born or naturalized in the U.S. (including former slaves). (citizenship)

   • Ensured equal protection under the law.

3. 15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited voting discrimination based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. (suffrage)

Freedmen’s Bureau (1865-1872)

• Purpose: Aid newly freed African Americans during Reconstruction.

• Services:

  • Provided food, housing, and medical care.

  • Established schools and helped negotiate labor contracts.

• Challenges: Faced resistance from Southern whites and limited funding.

Ku Klux Klan (Founded 1866)

• Origins: Formed by ex-Confederates in Tennessee.

• Goal: Intimidate African Americans and their allies, suppress their political participation.

• Tactics: Violence, including lynchings and threats, to enforce white supremacy.

• Impact: Undermined Reconstruction efforts, leading to the rise of segregation laws.

Compromise of 1877

• Context: Disputed presidential election between Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) and Samuel Tilden (Democrat).

• Terms:

  • Hayes became president.

  • Federal troops withdrawn from the South, ending Reconstruction.

  • Democrats regained control of Southern governments (“Redemption”).

• Impact:

  • African Americans lost federal protection.

  • Segregation and disenfranchisement became widespread in the South.

Sharecropping

• System:

  • Freedmen and poor whites rented land from landowners in exchange for a share of the crops.

  • Landowners provided tools and seeds but charged high-interest rates.

• Impact:

  • Created a cycle of debt and economic dependency for sharecroppers.

  • Effectively replaced slavery as a system of exploitation.

GILDED AGE & PROGRESSIVISM

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

• Case: Challenged Louisiana’s law segregating railroad cars.

• Ruling:

  • Established the "separate but equal" doctrine, upholding racial segregation.

  • Legalized discrimination in public facilities.

• Impact: Institutionalized segregation (Jim Crow laws) for decades.

W.E.B. Du Bois

• Philosophy: Advocated for immediate civil rights and higher education for African Americans.

• Key Works: The Souls of Black Folk (1903).

• Actions:

  • Co-founded the NAACP (1909) to fight for racial equality through litigation and advocacy.

  • Opposed Booker T. Washington’s more gradual approach to racial uplift.

Booker T. Washington

• Philosophy: Advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance for African Americans.

• Key Speech: Atlanta Compromise (1895) – emphasized accommodation to segregation in exchange for economic progress.

• Legacy: Founded the Tuskegee Institute, a vocational training school.

Carrie Chapman Catt

• Role: Leader in the women’s suffrage movement.

• Strategy:

  • Focused on state-level campaigns for voting rights.

  • Developed the "Winning Plan" to push for the 19th Amendment (ratified in 1920).

• Leadership: President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

Populism

• Origins: Agrarian movement arising from farmers' frustrations with railroads, banks, and monopolies.

• Key Platform (Omaha Platform, 1892):

  • Free coinage of silver (“bimetallism”).

  • Government ownership of railroads and telegraphs.

  • Direct election of Senators.

  • Progressive income tax.

• Legacy: Influenced later Progressive reforms.

“Cross of Gold” Speech (1896)

• Speaker: William Jennings Bryan at the Democratic National Convention.

What It Argued:

• Bimetallism: Bryan supported the free coinage of silver alongside gold to increase the money supply.

• This would help farmers and workers who were burdened by debt and deflation, as silver would cause inflation, making debts easier to repay.

• Bryan opposed the Gold Standard, which he argued favored industrialists, bankers, and the wealthy elite at the expense of common people.

Famous Line:

• "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold."

Impact:

1. Energized the Populist Movement: The speech electrified supporters of the Democratic and Populist causes, making Bryan a symbol of agrarian discontent and working-class struggles.

2. Presidential Election of 1896:

   • Bryan won the Democratic nomination but lost the presidency to Republican William McKinley, who supported the gold standard.

3. Significance: The speech became a rallying cry for Populists and silver advocates, highlighting the divide between rural/working-class Americans and industrial capitalists.

Progressive Movement

• Goals: Address issues of industrialization, urbanization, and corruption.

Political Reforms:

1. Initiative: Allowed citizens to propose legislation and bypass state legislatures by directly placing laws on the ballot for a public vote.

2. Referendum: Enabled voters to approve or reject laws passed by state legislatures, increasing direct participation in the law-making process.

3. Recall: Gave voters the power to remove elected officials from office before their term ended through a special election.

4. Direct Election of Senators (17th Amendment, 1913): Shifted the election of U.S. Senators from state legislatures to direct popular vote, reducing corruption and increasing democratic accountability.

5. Women’s Suffrage: Progressives laid the groundwork for the 19th Amendment (1920), granting women the right to vote.

Social Reforms:

1. Child Labor Laws:

   • Laws were passed to restrict child labor and mandate school attendance, recognizing the exploitation of children in factories and mines.

   • Example: The Keating-Owen Act (1916) sought to prohibit the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor (later struck down but set a precedent).

2. Prohibition (18th Amendment, 1919):

   • Banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol.

   • Prohibition was driven by the belief that alcohol caused social problems like poverty, domestic violence, and workplace inefficiency.

   • Groups like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League pushed for this reform.

3. Workplace Safety Laws:

   • Laws addressing unsafe working conditions were passed, particularly after tragedies like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire (1911), which killed 146 workers.

4. Public Health Initiatives:

   • Efforts were made to improve sanitation, housing, and food safety in overcrowded urban areas.

   • The establishment of health departments helped fight diseases like cholera and tuberculosis.

Economic Reforms:

1. Regulation of Trusts and Monopolies:

   • Progressives sought to limit the power of big businesses, which dominated industries and stifled competition.

   • The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) and later the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) were used to break up monopolies and regulate unfair business practices.

   • President Theodore Roosevelt became known as a “trust-buster,” targeting companies like Standard Oil and the Northern Securities Company.

2. Consumer Protections:

   • The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) were passed to ensure food and medicine safety following public outrage over unsafe practices exposed in works like Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle.

3. Banking Reform:

   • The Federal Reserve Act (1913) established the Federal Reserve System, creating a central bank to stabilize the economy, regulate credit, and manage inflation.

4. Labor Rights:

   • Laws were passed to limit work hours (e.g., the 10-hour workday) and improve conditions for workers, particularly for women and children.

   • Unions gained strength to advocate for fair wages and safe working conditions.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

• Purpose: Outlawed monopolies and business practices that restrained trade.

• Impact:

  • Initially weak enforcement.

  • Later used by Theodore Roosevelt in trust-busting efforts.

Political Machines

• Definition: Organized groups controlling city governments in exchange for votes.

• Example: Tammany Hall in New York City led by Boss Tweed.

  • Tammany Hall: It became the main local political machine of the Democratic Party and played a major role in controlling New York City and New York state politics.

  • It helped immigrants, most notably the Irish, rise in American politics from the 1850s into the 1960s.

    • Progressives sought to limit the power of big businesses, which dominated industries and stifled competition.

    • The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) and later the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) were used to break up monopolies and regulate unfair business practices.

    • President Theodore Roosevelt became known as a “trust-buster,” targeting companies like Standard Oil and the Northern Securities Company.

• Impact:

  • Provided services to immigrants but were often corrupt.

  • Embezzled public funds through kickbacks and patronage.

Gospel of Wealth (1889)

• Author: Andrew Carnegie.

• Philosophy: Advocated for the wealthy to use their fortunes to advance societal progress (e.g., philanthropy, libraries).

• Impact: Inspired philanthropic efforts but justified income inequality during the Gilded Age.

Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal

• Principles: Focused on fairness in business, labor, and conservation.

• The Square Deal was President Theodore Roosevelt's domestic policy framework, focusing on providing fairness and equal opportunities for all Americans. Roosevelt aimed to balance the interests of labor, business, and consumers to ensure that no one group could dominate the others.

• Key Policies:

  • Trust-busting: Broke up monopolies like Standard Oil.

  • Consumer protections: Pure Food and Drug Act (1906).

  • Conservation: Established national parks and forests.

• Conservation of Natural Resources:
  Roosevelt believed in the responsible use and preservation of the nation's natural resources. He established national parks, forests, and monuments to protect public lands and wildlife.

  • Notable accomplishments:

    • Created the U.S. Forest Service (1905)

    • Signed into law the Antiquities Act (1906), which allowed for the creation of national monuments.

    • Expanded national parks, increasing protected lands by millions of acres.

• Control of Corporations:
  Roosevelt sought to regulate big businesses (especially monopolies) to ensure fair competition and prevent abuse of power. This was part of his broader push for trust-busting.

  • The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) was used to break up monopolistic practices.

  • The Northern Securities Company, a railroad monopoly, was dissolved under Roosevelt’s administration.

  • Roosevelt earned a reputation as a “trust-buster,” aiming to keep business practices fair without stifling economic growth.

• Consumer Protection:
  Roosevelt wanted to protect the public from unsafe products, unsafe working conditions, and corporate exploitation.

  • The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) were passed to regulate food safety and prevent deceptive practices in the food and drug industries.

  • These laws helpe

Jacob Riis

• Work: How the Other Half Lives (1890).

• Impact:

  • Exposed the poor living conditions in urban tenements.

  • Influenced housing reforms and Progressive activism.

Settlement Houses

• Definition: Community centers providing services to urban poor, particularly immigrants.

• Example: Hull House in Chicago, founded by Jane Addams.

• Services: Education, healthcare, childcare, and job training.

• Impact: Helped assimilate immigrants and spurred Progressive reforms.