beliefs in society

Durkheim (1912)

Religion expresses the collective conscience; sacred symbols represent society itself and create social solidarity.

Sacred vs Profane (Durkheim)

Sacred = special, set apart; Profane = ordinary aspects of daily life.

Parsons (1967)

Religion provides core values and meaning in times of crisis, acting as a mechanism of adjustment.

Robert Bellah (1970) – Civil Religion

A shared set of national values (e.g. “God bless America”) that unites people across different faiths.

Karl Marx

Religion is the “opium of the people”; it legitimises inequality and maintains capitalist control by creating false consciousness.

Lenin – Spiritual Gin

Religion numbs the working class like “spiritual gin,” preventing revolution.

Althusser – Ideological State Apparatus

Religion functions as an ISA that reproduces class inequality and justifies ruling-class dominance.

Gramsci – Counter-Hegemony

Religion can help challenge ruling-class ideology and support the working class.

Maduro (1982) – Liberation Theology

Catholic priests in Latin America used religion to support the poor and resist dictatorships.

Simone de Beauvoir (1953)

Religion encourages women to accept subordination for the promise of divine reward.

El Saadawi (1980)

Patriarchy, not religion itself, causes women’s oppression through the male interpretation of religious texts.

Karen Armstrong

Early religions were matriarchal and celebrated goddesses before patriarchal societies rewrote them.

Linda Woodhead

Religion can empower women; the hijab can symbolise identity and liberation.

Max Weber – Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism (1905)

Calvinist beliefs (predestination, hard work, asceticism) encouraged the development of modern capitalism.

Predestination (Calvinism)

Belief that God has already chosen who will be saved; success seen as a sign of salvation.

Ideology (general)

A set of beliefs that justify existing social arrangements and maintain power.

Karl Popper (1959)

Science is an open belief system that advances through falsification and testing.

Thomas Kuhn (1962)

Science operates within paradigms; real change happens through paradigm shifts.

Polanyi (1958)

Science also relies on belief systems and unquestioned assumptions.

Mannheim

All belief systems serve social interests: ideological thought supports the status quo, utopian thought seeks change.

Secularisation (definition)

The process by which religious institutions, beliefs, and practices lose social significance.

Bryan Wilson (1966)

Defined secularisation as the decline of religious influence in thought, practice, and institutions.

Steve Bruce – Causes of Secularisation

Industrialisation, rationalisation, social differentiation, and cultural diversity reduce religion’s power.

Max Weber – Rationalisation

Modern society experiences disenchantment as scientific thinking replaces religious explanations.

Peter Berger (1967) – Sacred Canopy

Religion once provided a unified worldview; pluralism undermined this shared canopy.

Grace Davie (2013) – Believing without Belonging

People still hold beliefs but reject institutional religion and church attendance.

Hervieu-Léger (2000) – Spiritual Shopping

Individuals pick and mix beliefs to create personal spirituality in a consumer culture.

Stark & Bainbridge – Religious Market Theory

Religion adapts and competes like a market; pluralism keeps faith alive.

Norris & Inglehart – Existential Security Theory

Societies with higher insecurity (poverty, danger) show stronger religious belief.

Anthony Giddens (1999) – Fundamentalism

A reaction to globalisation and uncertainty; seeks absolute truth and security.

Bauman (1998)

Religion provides stability and identity in a postmodern world of uncertainty.

Steve Bruce (2008)

Fundamentalism is more common in monotheistic religions like Islam and Christianity.

Beckford (2003)

Fundamentalism isn’t always conservative; some forms can be progressive or hybrid.

Lyon (2000) – Jesus in Disneyland

Religion has become consumerised and mediated through global media and popular culture.

Heelas & Woodhead (2005) – Kendal Project

Found growth of spirituality over institutional religion; rise of the “subjective turn” (focus on self).

Postmodern Religion

Religion becomes individualised, privatised, and consumer-driven rather than institutional.

Wallis (1984) – Types of New Religious Movements

1. World-rejecting 2) World-accommodating 3) World-affirming

Stark & Bainbridge – Compensators

People join NRMs to meet unmet needs or gain meaning not found elsewhere.

Heelas (1996)

New Age Movements appeal to self-spirituality and personal development.

Social Class and Religion

Working class → expressive/fundamentalist faiths; middle class → liberal/intellectual faiths.

Gender and Religion (Davie, Bruce)

Women are more religious due to socialisation, caring roles, and higher risk aversion.

Cultural Defence (Bruce)

Religion preserves identity in the face of external threats.

Cultural Transition (Modood, 1997)

Religion helps migrants adapt to a new culture while maintaining roots.

Age and Religion

Older people are more religious due to socialisation, habit, and proximity to death.

Religion as Social Stability

Religion promotes shared norms, value consensus, and moral regulation.

Religion as Social Change

Religion can challenge inequality and inspire social movements (e.g. MLK, Liberation Theology).

Global South Religion

Religion remains strong in less secular societies; modernisation doesn’t equal decline.

Postmodern Religion Summary

Religion transforms instead of disappearing — personalised, diverse, and fluid.