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Social Psychology
Branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others
Attitudes
positive or negative evaluations of social issues, institutions, products, people, etc.
Affective Component
Emotional Feelings
Prejudice
a preconceived judgment or emotional feeling directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group
Behavioral Component
Predisposition to act (or not act) in certain ways
Discrimination
the unjust treatment toward a person based on a particular group to which they belong
Cognitive Component
Beliefs
Stereotypes
an overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people
Explicit Attitudes
attitudes that we hold consciously and can readily describe
Implicit Attitudes
covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle, automatic responses that people have little conscious control over
Reference Groups
a group that we compare ourselves to when evaluating our behaviors
Relative Deprivation
perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource (e.g. money, social status, etc.) he/she has is less than in comparison to people in their reference group. Leads to feelings of inferiority or entitlement.
Downward Social Comparison
when people compare themselves to those who are less proficient than they are (to make themselves feel better)
Upward Social Comparison
when people compare themselves to those who are more proficient than they are
Spotlight Effect
Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
False Consensus Effect
overestimating how much other people share our beliefs and behaviors
Halo Effect
When a general (positive) impression of a person in one area influences the impressions of that person in other areas (e.g. characteristics/abilities)
Illusory Correlations
When people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen (i.e. think there is a correlation when there really isn't)
Outgroup Homogeneity Bias
the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as "all the same," whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Our beliefs lead you to act in ways that fulfill our expectations
Ethnocentrism
Tendency to view one's own culture as superior and apply one's own cultural values when judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures.
Ingroup bias
Tendency for humans to be more helpful and positive
towards members of their own group over members of an out-group
Outgroup Bias
Negative categorizations of or feelings toward people who are not our ingroup
Effects of Categorization
Categorization can lead to prejudice & discrimination
Cognitive Dissonance
Mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. OR when our Affect (emotion), Behavior (action), &/or Cognitions (beliefs) aren't congruent..... This dissonance drives us to change either one of our beliefs &/or our behavior so that they realign.
Persuasion
A process where a person, brand, or other factors influence another person's behavior or attitudes
Central Route to Persuasion
When attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information (deep processing of the information presented)
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
When persuasion depends on non-message factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses
Compliance
changing behavior in response to a request
Foot-in-the-door technique
getting a person to agree to a large request by first getting them to agree to a smaller request
Door-in-the-face technique
making a large request of someone, that they will most likely turn down, so they are more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request.
Norm of Reciprocity
The "rule" that we should pay back (reciprocate) what we receive from others
Contact hypothesis
The idea that bringing people together who are in conflict will help the conflict to subside as they get to know and understand each other
Superordinate goals
Tasks that get people from opposing sides to come together and work toward a common goal/end result (can't succeed without all members contributing)
Attributions
inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior
Internal Attributions
believe the causes of behavior are due to dispositional factors (internal traits) (e.g. personality, intelligence, abilities, feelings, traits) *these can be stable or unstable
External Attributions
believe the causes of behavior are due to situational demands and environmental constraints (external factors)
Actor-Observer Bias: Negative behaviors
me (actor) = external, you (observer) = internal
Actor-Observer Bias: Positive behaviors
me (actor) = internal, you (observer) = external
Fundamental Attribution Error: Negative behaviors of others
internal
Fundamental Attribution Error: Positive behaviors of others
external
Self-Serving Bias: Negative behaviors of ourselves
external
Self-Serving Bias: Positive behaviors of ourselves
internal
Scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger and other negative emotions by providing someone (or a group) to blame (that is usually not at fault)
Defensive Attribution & Just-World Hypothesis
tendency to blame victims for their misfortune so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way ("just-world hypothesis")
Social Loafing
Exerting less effort when working on a task when in groups than when working alone (due to diffusion of responsibility)
Social facilitation
presence of others = improves one's performance
Social impairment
presence of others = hinders one's performance
Group polarization
tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions than the initial inclination of each individual member
Groupthink
When desire for harmony or conformity within a group leads to dysfunctional or irrational decision-making
The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Social Roles
A pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group
The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Brief description
only lasted 6 days; was supposed to be 2 weeks
Supports the influence of social roles & power of the situation
The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Social Trap (Cooperation vs. Competition)
A situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses
Altruism
Actions that are motivated by a desire to help others, without expecting any reward (selfless giving)
Social reciprocity norm
suggests that people should help those who help them
Social responsibility norm
a societal expectation that individuals should assist those in need
Bystander Effect
people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone. This effect is influenced by various situational and attentional variables.
Bystander Effect: Situational variables
These include the context in which the event occurs. Factors such as:
- the number of bystanders
- the perceived severity of the situation
- the relationship between the bystanders and the victim (who the victim is)
- proximity to the victim
- the location of the situation, etc.,
- can all impact whether someone decides to help.
Bystander Effect: Attentional variables
These refer to how much focus a bystander has on the situation. If a person is distracted or preoccupied with their own thoughts or activities, they may not notice that someone needs help. Additionally, if the situation is ambiguous (e.g., someone falls but it's unclear if they're hurt), bystanders may hesitate to act because they're unsure if help is needed.
Diffusion of responsibility
when others are present, a person is less likely to feel the obligation to take responsibility
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness/personal identity when in groups due to perceived lack of accountability
Conformity
When people change their behavior due to real or imagined social pressure (explicit or implicit)
Social norms
The perceived informal, mostly unwritten, rules that define acceptable and appropriate actions within a given group or community, thus guiding human behavior
Asch's Conformity Study
- Asked which line matches original line (left)
- Each announces choice to group; all but one is an accomplice of the experimenter
- Accomplices give incorrect answers during multiple trials
- 37% conformity (on majority of the trials); 75% conformed at least once
Factors that influence conformity
- group size
- unamity
- cohesion
- cultural differences
Normative Influence
When people conform to social norms in a group for fear of negative social consequences (or the desire to fit in/be accepted)
Informational Influence
when you conform to a group in ambiguous situations (because you are unsure what to do); you look to the behaviors of others to see how they behave because you assume they know something you don't
Obedience
Form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a (real or imagined) position of authority
Milgram's Shock Experiment: Brief description & findings
- NO Shocks were actually given
- Participants were told that the study was about impact of punishment on learning
- Shock generator set up w/descriptions for voltage
- Script for "learner" to express distress
- Findings: of 40 participants only 5 quit at 300 volts; only 14 participants defied the experimenter before the full series of shocks was completed; 65% gave all 30 levels of shock
Milgram's Shock Experiment: Ethical concerns
deception, severe stress, coercion (did the participants believe their participation was voluntary?), knowledge that capable of harm to innocent victim; Milgram felt it was ethical due to debriefing (which included introduction)
Factors that influence obedience
- proximity
- legitimacy
- consensus
- collectivism
Mere Exposure Effect
the finding that repeated exposures to a stimulus promotes greater liking of the stimulus (no cognition)
The Matching Hypothesis
People of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners
Similarity
we tend to be attracted to those who have common interests and beliefs (more similar)
Proximity
tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relationships with those who are close by
Components of Love
- Intimacy (friendship)
- Passion (sexual attraction)
- Commitment (psychological loyalty)
Consummate Love
Passion + Intimacy + Commitment
Companionate Love
Intimacy + Commitment (no passion)
Romantic Love
Passion + Intimacy (no commitment)
Culture & Close Relationships
-Romantic love is not found in all cultures
-Individualism: marriage for love, "passionate love"
-Collectivism: arranged marriages
An Evolutionary Perspective on Relationships
-Physical attraction = influential determinant of attraction
-Men seek youthfulness and physical attractiveness (to pass on their genes)
-Women seek ambition, social status, and financial potential (for protection)