Ap bio

What are the three main types of chemical bonds discussed in basic chemistry?

Covalent bonds (sharing of electron pairs), ionic bonds (electrostatic attraction between charged ions), and hydrogen bonds (attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom).

What four types of biomolecules are essential to life, and what are their functions?

Carbohydrates (provide energy and structural support), lipids (store energy and make up cell membranes), proteins (perform a vast array of functions including catalyzing reactions and signaling), and nucleic acids (store and transmit genetic information).

What property of water is crucial for supporting life?

Its ability to form hydrogen bonds, leading to high specific heat, cohesion, and adhesion.

What does the Cell Theory state?

All living things are composed of cells.

What are the key structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have both. Examples: Prokaryotic cells include bacteria (e.g., E. coli), while eukaryotic cells include plants (e.g., oak tree) and animals (e.g., humans).

What is the function of the mitochondria?

ATP production through cellular respiration.

What is the phospholipid bilayer?

The structural basis of cell membranes, consisting of two layers of phospholipids.

What is catabolism?

The breakdown of complex molecules to release energy.

How do enzymes function?

They speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

What is ATP and its significance in cellular processes?

A nucleotide that serves as the primary energy carrier in cells.

What are the four types of cell signaling, and what does endocrine signaling involve?

Autocrine (cells respond to signals they produce themselves), paracrine (cells respond to signals from nearby cells), endocrine (hormonal signaling involving the release of hormones into the bloodstream), and direct contact (cells communicate through physical contact, often through cell surface molecules).

What are the phases of the cell cycle and their functions?

Interphase (cell growth and DNA replication), mitosis (nuclear division), and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death that plays a crucial role in maintaining health.

What are the two laws of Mendelian genetics?

The law of segregation (each allele for a trait separates during gamete formation) and the law of independent assortment (genes for different traits are inherited independently of one another).

What is the operon model in prokaryotes?

A way to regulate gene expression involving a group of genes under the control of a single promoter.

What are the main mechanisms of evolution?

Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow.

What type of evidence supports the theory of evolution?

Fossil record, biogeography, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology.

What is allopatric speciation?

Speciation that occurs when populations are geographically isolated.

What are the four levels of ecological organization?

Organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.

What is the significance of biodiversity?

It contributes to ecosystem stability and resilience.

What is a sustainable practice?

A method that meets present needs without compromising future generations.

What are the five themes of AP Biology?

The five themes are evolution, energy transfer, continuity and change, relationships of structure and function, and regulation.

What is the role of the cell membrane?

It regulates what enters and exits the cell, maintaining homeostasis.

What is photosynthesis and what are its two main stages?

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. The two main stages are light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions).

What is cellular respiration, and what are its main stages?

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water. The main stages are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

What are the major steps of protein synthesis?

The major steps are transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein).

What is the significance of the Hardy-Weinberg principle?

It provides a mathematical model for understanding the genetic variation of a population under ideal conditions.

What mechanisms maintain genetic diversity within a population?

Genetic diversity is maintained through mutations, gene flow, sexual reproduction, and recombination during meiosis.

What is the role of ribosomes in cells?

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, translating mRNA into polypeptides.

What are the different types of RNA and their functions?

mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the genetic information from DNA, tRNA (transfer RNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation, and rRNA (ribosomal RNA) forms part of the ribosome.

What are ecosystem dynamics?

Ecosystem dynamics refer to the interactions and flow of energy and matter through ecosystems, including food webs, trophic levels, and nutrient cycling

What is the carbon cycle?

The carbon cycle is the series of processes by which carbon compounds are interconverted in the environment, involving carbon dioxide uptake by plants during photosynthesis and its release back into the atmosphere through respiration, decomposition, and combustion.

What is the role of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle?

Photosynthesis captures carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and incorporates it into organic compounds in plants.

What is the role of cellular respiration in the carbon cycle?

Cellular respiration breaks down glucose and other organic molecules, releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

What is decomposition in the carbon cycle?

Decomposition is the process where dead organic material is broken down by microorganisms, returning carbon to the soil and atmosphere.

How does human activity impact the carbon cycle?

Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, increase carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, leading to climate change.

What is the significance of mangroves and wetlands in the carbon cycle?

Mangroves and wetlands act as carbon sinks, sequestering carbon dioxide and reducing its concentration in the atmosphere.

What are the four main processes involved in the carbon cycle?

Photosynthesis, cellular respiration, decomposition, and combustion.

What are the consequences of increased carbon levels in the atmosphere?

Increased carbon levels contribute to global warming, ocean acidification, and disruptions in weather patterns.

What role do oceans play in the carbon cycle?

Oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which can be used by marine organisms for photosynthesis or can lead to carbonic acid formation.

What is the difference between organic and inorganic carbon?

Organic carbon is found in living organisms and their remains, while inorganic carbon includes carbon dioxide and carbonates found in rocks and minerals.

What is a concentration gradient?

A concentration gradient is a difference in the concentration of a substance across a space, where particles flow from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

What is chemiosmosis?

Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions (typically protons) across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient, which is coupled to the production of ATP.

What are the main processes of cellular respiration?

The main processes of cellular respiration are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation.

How does active transport differ from passive transport?

Active transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient, while passive transport does not require energy and moves substances down their concentration gradient.

What is mitosis and its stages?

Mitosis is the process of cell division resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells. The stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

What is the role of ATP in cellular processes?

ATP acts as a primary energy carrier in cells, providing energy for various biochemical reactions.

What is heredity?

Heredity is the process through which genetic traits and characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring.

What role do alleles play in heredity?

Alleles are different versions of a gene that contribute to the variation of traits; individuals inherit one allele from each parent.

What is a genotype?

A genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of the alleles they carry for a particular trait.

What is a phenotype?

A phenotype is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by its genotype and environmental influences.

What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes?

A homozygous genotype has two identical alleles for a trait, while a heterozygous genotype has two different alleles.

What is a monohybrid cross?

A monohybrid cross is a genetic cross between parents that differ in a single trait, used to study inheritance patterns.

What is the significance of dominant and recessive alleles in heredity?

Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles; a dominant allele only requires one copy to be expressed, while a recessive allele requires two copies.

What is incomplete dominance?

Incomplete dominance is a form of inheritance in which the phenotype of heterozygotes is intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes.

What is codominance?

Codominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that displays characteristics of both alleles.

What role do mutations play in heredity?

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can introduce new genetic variation, potentially affecting an organism's traits and inheritance

What is gene expression?

Gene expression is the process by which the information in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, typically a protein.

What are the main steps involved in gene expression?

The main steps in gene expression are transcription (the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template) and translation (the synthesis of proteins from mRNA).

What role do transcription factors play in gene expression?

Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences, regulating the transcription of genes by promoting or inhibiting RNA polymerase activity.

What is the difference between enhancers and silencers?

Enhancers are DNA sequences that increase transcription levels of target genes, while silencers are sequences that decrease transcription.

What is post-transcriptional regulation?

Post-transcriptional regulation refers to the control of gene expression at the RNA level, including RNA splicing, editing, stability, and translation efficiency.

What is the role of epigenetics in gene regulation?

Epigenetics involves chemical modifications to DNA and histone proteins that regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

How does alternative splicing affect gene expression?

Alternative splicing allows a single gene to produce multiple mRNA variants, leading to the production of different protein isoforms, thereby increasing protein diversity.

What is RNA interference (RNAi)?

RNA interference is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules.

What is the significance of DNA methylation in gene regulation?

DNA methylation typically represses gene expression by preventing the binding of transcription factors to DNA.

What are the mechanisms of translation regulation?

Translation regulation can occur through various mechanisms including ribosome binding efficiency, initiation factors, and the presence of regulatory RNAs

What is cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.

What are the main stages of cellular respiration?

The main stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation.

What is glycolysis?

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.

What is the citric acid cycle?

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of cellular respiration where ATP is produced using the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

What is the role of ATP synthase?

ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate, utilizing the proton gradient created by the electron transport chain.

What is fermentation?

Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen, allowing for ATP production without aerobic respiration.

What are the two main types of fermentation?

The two main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation (producing ethanol and carbon dioxide) and lactic acid fermentation (producing lactic acid).

How does photosynthesis relate to cellular respiration?

Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight, while cellular respiration converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water to release energy.

What is the significance of energy carriers like NADH and FADH2 in cellular respiration?

NADH and FADH2 are energy carriers that transport electrons to the electron transport chain, where their energy is used to produce ATP.