Psychology 1/2 Glossary

Development

How we grow and change over time: age-related changes, change → lasting or permanent to be developmental

Psychological development

An individual's cognitive, emotional and social growth over time

Why is it important for psychologists to know the stages of psychological development?

To organise society, to observe the differences between how different developmental groups respond to experiences, to be able to identify non-typical behaviour within psychological developmental groups

Social development

Development of how to interact with others and form relationships

Emotional development

Development of ability to recognise, express and manage emotions

Cognitive development

Development of ability to think and reason

Nature

Hereditary factors

Nurture

Environmental factors

Heredity

Genes, which are passed down from a biological parent to their child, influencing psychological development

Environment

Everything outside of us; physical and social surroundings

Genetics

The biological traits that are passed down form a biological parent to their child

Epigenetics

The study of factors, other than genetic ones, that control how and when each gene is expressed. They influence how our genes express the traits we inherit from our biological parents

Genetic predisposition

The increased likelihood for an individual to develop certain traits, including diseases, if certain conditions are met

Biopsychosocial model

Reflects how biological, psychological and social factors interact to influence psychological development and mental wellbeing

Mental wellbeing

A state of emotional wellbeing in which individuals realise their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and can contribute to their community

Risk factors

Biological, psychological and social factors that can increase the likelihood of developing maladaptive and atypical behaviour patterns or a mental disorder over a lifespan

Protective factors

Biological, psychological and social factors that can reduce the risks of developing maladaptive behaviour patterns or a mental disorder

Biological factors

Genetic and/or physiologically based factors

Psychological factors

Factors relating to a person's mind, thoughts or feelings

Social factors

Factors relating to a person's relationship or external environment

Attachment

Emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver

Attachment theory

The idea that early attachments with primary caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life

Primary caregivers

Adults who predominantly look after the child

Contact comfort

Positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close, physical contact with primary caregiver

Secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

Insecure-avoidant attachment

Demonstrated by infants who avoid connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Insecure-resistant attachment

Demonstrated by infants who show unhealthy attachment and little exploratory behaviour when with the primary caregiver, show distress when the caregiver leaves, and is unable to be consoled upon the primary caregiver's return

Harry Harlow and the rhesus monkeys

Attachment is formed based on physical touch and contact comfort rather than nutrition

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Series of separations and reunions with caregiver and infant used to assess attachment style

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.

Cognitive development

The development of mental processes over the lifespan

Schema

Existing mental idea

Assimilation

Taking in new information and putting it into an existing mental idea

Accommodation

Changing an existing mental idea to fit new information

Concrete thinking

A literal form of thinking based on tangible concepts

Symbolic thinking

A more sophisticated type of thinking based on the ability to represent abstract concepts with symbols

Sensorimotor

Piaget's stage of dev 0-2yrs : develops object permanence and goal-directed behaviour

Object permanence

Understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched

Goal-directed behaviour

Doing things with a predetermined purpose

Pre-operational

Piaget's stage of dev 2-7 yrs: develops egocentrism, animism and centration

Egocentrism

Seeing the world only from one's own point of view

Animism

Believing that every object has some kind of consciousness

Transformation

Understanding that something can change from one state, form or structure into another

Centration

Only focussing on one quality or feature of an object at a time

Concrete operational

Piaget's stage of dev 7-12 yrs: develops reversibility, conservation and classification

Reversibility

Understanding that an action can be undone or reversed

Conservation

Understanding that an object's weight, mass, volume or area remains the same even if the object changes in appearance

Classification

Organising information into categories based on common features

Formal operational

Piaget's stage of dev 12+ yrs: develops abstract thinking and logic

Abstract thinking

Considering concepts that are not concrete or tangible

Logic

Ability to objectively consider a problem or scenario from multiple pathways

Sensitive periods

Period of development in which it is optimal to learn a specific function or skill

Critical periods

Narrow and rigid period of development in which a specific function or skill must be learnt. If a certain skill is not learnt within these periods, it will never be learnt

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to change in response to experience or the environment

Imprinting

When an animal builds an attachment to the first moving object they see after they are born

Ethical concepts

The broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practice, or examining a psychological issue

Beneficence

The consideration of the benefits or gain from research in relation to the risks

Non-maleficence

The idea that any potential harm should be avoided and minimized as much as possible

Integrity

The commitment to search for knowledge, and then honestly report information and findings

Justice

The distribution of fair access to the benefits of research to everyone, ensuring that there is no burden on one group, and ensuring that any opposing claims are considered

Respect

The belief that everyone has value in regard to their welfare and beliefs, and has a right to make their own decisions

Ethical guidelines (participants’ rights)

The procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected

Voluntary participation

Participants must willingly and freely sign up to be involved in research

Informed consent

Participants must understand the nature and purpose of the study, including any risks

Withdrawal rights

Participants may leave the study at any time, including removing already obtained results

Debriefing

Participants are informed of the aims, results, and conclusions of the study and are provided with psychological support as needed

Deception

Participants must know the purpose of the study, unless it will influence their behaviour in the research. If deception is used, it must be addressed during debriefing

Confidentiality

Participants’ privacy should be protected, and no identifying information should be included in the research

Sensitive periods

Broad periods in development where it is optimal for an individual to be exposed to a certain environmental stimuli. If they are not exposed to this environmental stimuli during this period, they will still be able to learn it, albeit with more difficulty

Critical periods

Narrow timeframes in development where an individual must be exposed to a certain environmental stimuli. If they are not exposed to this environmental stimuli during this time, it is unlikely they will be able to gain this skill later in life

Typical behaviour

Patterns of behaviour that are expected of an individual or that conform to standards of what are acceptable for a given situation.

We behave like this because of genetic predisposition and environmental factors.

Typical development 

When behaviours, skills or abilities fall within the expected range of development or progress at a similar pace compared to peers of the same age. 

Atypical behaviour

Patterns of behaviour that are not expected for an individual or that deviate from the normal and can be harmful or distressing for the individual and those around them. 

Important to note: Atypical behaviours such as delay in speech can be isolated events that have little or no impact on later development. However at other times, they are early signs of significant developmental differences, such as those seen in autism.

Statistical rarity

Behaviours that are considered abnormal or atypical deviate significantly from the statistical average or mean. 

Limitations: Many statistically rare behaviours or characteristics are regarded as atypical or abnormal, even though they are quite frequent or common. The decision of where the cut-off point for atypical or statistically rare behaviour sits is subjective. When viewing behaviour according to this criterion, both ends of the normal curve are considered atypical. 

Social norms

Shared standards or beliefs about what is normal, acceptable or typical behaviour. Allows us to have order within society. 

Limitations: Can be wide differences between cultural groups as to what is and is not socially acceptable. Social norms change over time. Social norms can change according to the situation we are in. 

Personal distress 

Unpleasant or upsetting emotions (e.g. sadness, anxiety) and physiological pain and suffering (e.g. addictive behaviour). 

Limitations: Sometimes, despite a behaviour being maladaptive or unhelpful for the individual, personal distress may not occur. (e.g. smokers may not feel any negative emotions). Personal distress alone is not sufficient to describe behaviour as atypical. (e.g. if an individual loses a loved one, they will inevitably experience pain and suffering). 

Maladaptive behaviour 

Behaviour that is unhelpful, dysfunctional and non-productive, and that interferes with a person's ability to adjust to their environment appropriately and effectively. (e.g. if you have a test you are stressing about, an adaptive way of coping with this is by studying, while a maladaptive way of coping with this is procrastinating). Maladaptive behaviours may be good in the short-term. 

Limitations: Adaptive or maladaptive can be subjective and based on the opinion or judgment of a professional, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist. Can depend on the situation. Culture can also play a significant in determining the adaptiveness of a behaviour. The idea of maladaptive behaviours also being atypical can sometimes clash with the criterion of statistical rarity. 

Cultural perspectives 

A criterion for determining whether a behaviour is typical or atypical, by accounting for cultural normal or societal standards. 

Limitations: What is considered typical or atypical behaviour differs from culture to culture – there is no universal agreement. Certain countries have much cultural diversity. 

Normality/normal

The state of having thoughts, feelings, and behaviours considered common and acceptable

Abnormality/abnormal

The state of deviating from the norm, usually in an undesirable way

Neurotypical/neurotypicality

A term that describes individuals who display expected neurological and cognitive functioning

Neurodiverse/neurodiversity

Variations in neurological development and functioning, such as those experienced by individuals with Autism or ADHD

Adaptive

Being able to adjust to the environment appropriately and function effectively

Maladaptive

Being unable to adjust to the environment appropriately and function effectively

Neurodivergent 

Used to refer to people whose brains function differently to others

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 

A neurodevelopmental condition characterised by impaired social interactions, verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, narrow interests, and repetitive behaviour

Theory of mind 

A cognitive ability that allows us to make judgements about the other people's mental states. It usually develops in children between the ages of 3-5 years 

Executive function 

A cognitive process that helps us set goals, organise and plan, focus our attention and get things done. For example, working memory, problem - solving and flexible thinking 

Central Coherence 

A human's ability to derive overall meaning from a mass of details 

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

A neurological condition characterised by persistent inattention or hyperactivity that disrupts social, academic, or occupational functioning

Dyspraxia

A neurodevelopmental condition that primarily affects motor skills and coordination, making it difficult to plan and execute movements

Dyslexia

A learning disorder characterized by difficulty in reading due to problems identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and words

Dyscalculia

A learning disorder that affects a person's ability to understand and work with numbers, often leading to challenges in mathematical tasks

Cultural Responsiveness 

Acting in a way that responds to the needs of diverse communities and demonstrating an openness to new ideas that may align with different cultural ideas, beliefs and values

Mental health worker 

Professionals who work with people who have mental disorders, as well as their carers, families and friends. Mental health support does not involve counselling or specific treatment but more general support, which is guided by other mental health practitioners like psychiatrists.

Responsibilities:

• Facilitate education programs

• Connect individuals with social services

• Provide social connection

• Ensure that medication is taken properly

• Manage health records

• Develop coping strategies with clients

Psychologist

A professional that provides advice and strategies to people who are struggling with mental wellbeing and psychological development

Other facts:

• Must complete at least six years of education and training in psychology

• Able to diagnose mental disorders and associated atypical behaviours

• Can help with learning, emotions, behaviour and mental health

• Cannot prescribe medication

Psychiatrist

A professional that provides advice and prescribes medication to manage mental illness or a neurological development

Other facts:

• Must complete approx. 12 years of study - must obtain a medical degree

• Therefore medical doctors

• Diagnose and treat people with mental disorders

• Can assess mental and physical symptoms to develop a management plan for treatment and recovery

• Also provide psychological treatment (e.g. prescribe medications and perform medical procedures)

Organisation

Not-for-profit or government-based organisations made available for those diagnosed with atypical behaviours, mental disorders and/or developmental issues

Other facts:

• Can provide access to support for those living in remote areas or areas that lack resources

• For individuals and families who cannot afford to see a psychiatrist or psychologist, which can be costly, despite being subsidised by Medicare

Brain vs heart debate

A historical debate as to whether the brain or the heart is responsible for mental processes, such as thoughts, feelings and behaviours

Two opposing sides

The heart hypothesis

The heart was the source of all thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and the brain had no purpose at all

• Early philosophers and Ancient Egyptians held this view

The brain hypothesis

The brain was the source of all thoughts, feelings and behaviours

• Greek philosophers held this view

• This is now the accepted view

Mind-body problem

The question as to whether our mind is separate and distinguishable from our body or whether they are one integrated entity

The mind refers to our thoughts, consciousness and mental processes (NON-PHYSICAL)

The body refers to the structure of our brain and the neurons that it is made up of (PHYSICAL)

Two opposing sides

Monism

The belief that the human mind and body are together a singular complete entity

Dualism

The belief that the human mind and body are separate and distinguishable from one another