Psychology 1/2 Glossary

Development

How we grow and change over time: age-related changes, change → lasting or permanent to be developmental

Psychological development

An individual's cognitive, emotional and social growth over time

Why is it important for psychologists to know the stages of psychological development?

To organise society, to observe the differences between how different developmental groups respond to experiences, to be able to identify non-typical behaviour within psychological developmental groups

Social development

Development of how to interact with others and form relationships

Emotional development

Development of ability to recognise, express and manage emotions

Cognitive development

Development of ability to think and reason

Nature

Hereditary factors

Nurture

Environmental factors

Heredity

Genes, which are passed down from a biological parent to their child, influencing psychological development

Environment

Everything outside of us; physical and social surroundings

Genetics

The biological traits that are passed down form a biological parent to their child

Epigenetics

The study of factors, other than genetic ones, that control how and when each gene is expressed. They influence how our genes express the traits we inherit from our biological parents

Genetic predisposition

The increased likelihood for an individual to develop certain traits, including diseases, if certain conditions are met

Biopsychosocial model

Reflects how biological, psychological and social factors interact to influence psychological development and mental wellbeing

Mental wellbeing

A state of emotional wellbeing in which individuals realise their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and can contribute to their community

Risk factors

Biological, psychological and social factors that can increase the likelihood of developing maladaptive and atypical behaviour patterns or a mental disorder over a lifespan

Protective factors

Biological, psychological and social factors that can reduce the risks of developing maladaptive behaviour patterns or a mental disorder

Biological factors

Genetic and/or physiologically based factors

Psychological factors

Factors relating to a person's mind, thoughts or feelings

Social factors

Factors relating to a person's relationship or external environment

Attachment

Emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver

Attachment theory

The idea that early attachments with primary caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life

Primary caregivers

Adults who predominantly look after the child

Contact comfort

Positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close, physical contact with primary caregiver

Secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

Insecure-avoidant attachment

Demonstrated by infants who avoid connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Insecure-resistant attachment

Demonstrated by infants who show unhealthy attachment and little exploratory behaviour when with the primary caregiver, show distress when the caregiver leaves, and is unable to be consoled upon the primary caregiver's return

Harry Harlow and the rhesus monkeys

Attachment is formed based on physical touch and contact comfort rather than nutrition

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Series of separations and reunions with caregiver and infant used to assess attachment style

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.

Cognitive development

The development of mental processes over the lifespan

Schema

Existing mental idea

Assimilation

Taking in new information and putting it into an existing mental idea

Accommodation

Changing an existing mental idea to fit new information

Concrete thinking

A literal form of thinking based on tangible concepts

Symbolic thinking

A more sophisticated type of thinking based on the ability to represent abstract concepts with symbols

Sensorimotor

Piaget's stage of dev 0-2yrs : develops object permanence and goal-directed behaviour

Object permanence

Understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched

Goal-directed behaviour

Doing things with a predetermined purpose

Pre-operational

Piaget's stage of dev 2-7 yrs: develops egocentrism, animism and centration

Egocentrism

Seeing the world only from one's own point of view

Animism

Believing that every object has some kind of consciousness

Transformation

Understanding that something can change from one state, form or structure into another

Centration

Only focussing on one quality or feature of an object at a time

Concrete operational

Piaget's stage of dev 7-12 yrs: develops reversibility, conservation and classification

Reversibility

Understanding that an action can be undone or reversed

Conservation

Understanding that an object's weight, mass, volume or area remains the same even if the object changes in appearance

Classification

Organising information into categories based on common features

Formal operational

Piaget's stage of dev 12+ yrs: develops abstract thinking and logic

Abstract thinking

Considering concepts that are not concrete or tangible

Logic

Ability to objectively consider a problem or scenario from multiple pathways

Sensitive periods

Period of development in which it is optimal to learn a specific function or skill

Critical periods

Narrow and rigid period of development in which a specific function or skill must be learnt. If a certain skill is not learnt within these periods, it will never be learnt

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to change in response to experience or the environment

Imprinting

When an animal builds an attachment to the first moving object they see after they are born

Ethical concepts

The broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practice, or examining a psychological issue

Beneficence

The consideration of the benefits or gain from research in relation to the risks

Non-maleficence

The idea that any potential harm should be avoided and minimized as much as possible

Integrity

The commitment to search for knowledge, and then honestly report information and findings

Justice

The distribution of fair access to the benefits of research to everyone, ensuring that there is no burden on one group, and ensuring that any opposing claims are considered

Respect

The belief that everyone has value in regard to their welfare and beliefs, and has a right to make their own decisions

Ethical guidelines (participants’ rights)

The procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected

Voluntary participation

Participants must willingly and freely sign up to be involved in research

Informed consent

Participants must understand the nature and purpose of the study, including any risks

Withdrawal rights

Participants may leave the study at any time, including removing already obtained results

Debriefing

Participants are informed of the aims, results, and conclusions of the study and are provided with psychological support as needed

Deception

Participants must know the purpose of the study, unless it will influence their behaviour in the research. If deception is used, it must be addressed during debriefing

Confidentiality

Participants’ privacy should be protected, and no identifying information should be included in the research

Sensitive periods

Periods during development in which the effects of experience on development are particularly strong and sensory experiences have a greater influence on behaviour and brain development

Critical periods

Periods in development during which the individual is most vulnerable to the a sense of certain environmental stimuli or experiences