classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
higher-order conditioning
occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus
counterconditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
biological preparedness
a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others
Habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
superstitious behavior
a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
vicarious conditioning
classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person
insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
cognitive maps
An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.
Behavioral perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.
fixed interval
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Scalloped graph
The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule
Association
The basis of all learning is in what two things we group together, and how that triggers a response.
associative learning
linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
conditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
stimulus discrimination
a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
taste aversion
a learned avoidance of a particular food
orperant conditioning
a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
postitive reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus
negative reinforcement
increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
reinforcement discrimination
The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement.
reinforcement generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original stimulus that was reinforced.
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
variable interval
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed ratio
reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable ratio
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
reinforcement schedules
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
one trial conditioning
with one exposure to the aversive stimulus being enough to end the behavior forever
one trial learning
when conditioning occurs after a single experience involving relatively intense fear, pain, or sickness