Pyschology

the darkhold

critical thinking

The mental process of analyzing and evaluating information or arguments to form a reasoned judgment. It examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluate evidence, and assesses conclusions.

curiosity

A strong desire to know or learn something, driving exploration and inquiry.

humility

awareness of our vulnerability to error and openness to surprises and new perspectives

skepticism

an attitude of doubting the knowledge or validity of information, encouraging questioning and critical analysis.

hindsight bias

the tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have occurred, leading to overconfidence in one's ability to have foreseen outcomes.

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality and accuracy

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction often derived from a theory, indicating what researchers expect to happen in a study.

falsifiable

an idea, hypothesis, or theory capable of being proven false through observation or experiment.

case study

a research method involving an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event, often used to gain detailed and qualitative insights.

naturalistic observation

a research method where behavior is observed in its natural environment without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

survey

non-experimental technique, collects self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group through questioning a representative, a random sample of the group

social desirability bias

the tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by the researcher, often leading to inaccurate self-reports.

self-report bias

a phenomenon where respondents may provide inaccurate answers due to personal bias or misunderstanding, affecting the validity of survey data.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

A subset of individuals chosen randomly from a larger population, ensuring every member has an equal chance of selection to enhance the representativeness of the sample.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

correlation

a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables vary together, showing the strength and direction of their relationship.

correlation coefficient

a numerical value that quantifies the degree of correlation between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

variable

any characteristic or factor that can change or vary, often measured in research to understand relationships or effects.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables, while the closeness of the points indicates the strength of the correlation.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists, often leading to mistaken beliefs about the correlation between two variables.

regression towards mean

the statistical phenomenon where extreme values on measurements tend to fall back toward the average

experiment

a research method that involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, often using control groups and random assignments to ensure validity.

experimental groups

the groups in an experiment that receive the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing researchers to assess the effects of the independent variable compared to control groups.

control group

a group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used as a baseline to compare the effects of the experimental group.

random assignment

the process of randomly allocating participants to different groups in an experiment to minimize pre-existing differences among groups and enhance the validity of results.

single-blind procedure

A research design in which participants are unaware of which group they belong to (experimental or control) to reduce bias in their responses.

double-blind procedure

A research design in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment or control to eliminate bias in research outcomes.

placebo

A substance or treatment with no active therapeutic effect, often used in control groups to assess the efficacy of a treatment.

placebo effect

The placebo effect is a phenomenon where a patient experiences a perceived improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic value, typically due to their belief in the efficacy of the treatment.

independent variable

The independent variable is the factor in an experiment that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

confounding variable

A confounding variable is an external factor in an experiment that may influence the results, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

experimenter bias

Experimenter bias occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences influence the outcome of an experiment to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

The dependent variable is the factor in an experiment that is measured or observed to determine the effect of the independent variable. It is often thought of as the outcome or result of the experiment.

validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a test or experiment measures what it claims to be measuring. It ensures that the conclusions drawn from research are accurate and applicable.

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth narrative data, non-numerical data

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

the process of informing participants about the study's purpose, procedures, and any deceptions that occurred after their participation.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, showing the frequency of data points within specified ranges.

mode

the value that appears most frequently in a data set.

mean

the average of a data set, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values.

median

the value that separates the higher half from the lower half of a data set, often used in statistics to understand the central tendency.

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

A probability distribution in which most values lie to one side of the mean, resulting in a tail on one end. This can be either positively or negatively skewed.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a distribution data set

standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values from the mean. It quantifies how much the individual data points differ from the average.

normal curve

A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, representing the distribution of many types of data. It forms a bell-shaped curve where most of the observations cluster around the central peak.

inferential statistics

A branch of statistics that allows researchers to make conclusions and predictions about a population based on a sample of data. It includes hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

nature-nurture issue

the debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development.

natural selection

the process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. It is a key mechanism of evolution.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolutionary basis of behavior and mental processes in humans and animals, using the principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the field of study that explores the role of genetic and environmental factors in shaping behavior and psychological traits.

mutation

a change in a DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits and potentially contribute to the process of evolution.

environment

the external factors and conditions, nongenetic, that influence the development and behavior of organisms, including both physical and social elements.

heredity

the genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring, influencing physical and psychological characteristics.

genes

the basic units of heredity that carry genetic information and determine an organism's traits.

genome

the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism, instructions for making an organism

identical (monozygotic) twins

twins that originate from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos, sharing the same genetic material, they can only be the same sex

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins that result from two separate fertilized eggs and share about 50% of their genetic material, similar to regular siblings. they can be same or different sex

interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on the other

epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself.

nervous system

The complex electrochemical communication network of nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

central nervous system(CNS)

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and integrating information.

peripheral nervous system(PNA)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body, it controls involuntary and voluntary actions.

nerves

Bundles of axons that transmit signals between the central nervous system and various parts of the body.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. They play a crucial role in processing sensory information.

motor (efferent) neurons

Nerve cells that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. They play a crucial role in executing motor functions and facilitating movement.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord