HHD - Unit 4 sac 1

HIV

a virus that attacks the body’s immune system and makes the person more susceptible to other infections such as pneumonia

• unprotected sex → safe sex

• blood transfusion

• shared needles → dont share

• mother to child during pregnancy and breastfeeding

treatment - ART (therapy)

AIDs

advanced stage of HIV when immune system is badly damaged

• same as hiv spread → prevent HIV infection

NO TREATMENT

Malaria

a disease caused by parasites spread by mosquitoes

• bite from INFECTED mosquito

• insecticide treated mosquito nets

• insect repellents

• long sleeve clothing

Diarrheal Disease

frequent watery bowel movements

• contaminated food/water

• poor hygiene

prevention → safe drinking water, good sanitation

Cholera

severe diarrheal disease

• contaminated water/food

prevention → clean, safe water proper sanitation

Typhoid

bacterial infection affecting intestines

• contaminated food or water

prevention → clean, safe water proper sanitation, hygiene + ANTIBIOTICS

Polio

a viral disease that can cause paralysis

• contaminated food or water

• direct contact with infected person

prevention → POLIO VACCINE

but no cure → physical therapy

Tuberculosis

bacterial infection that affects lungs

• airborne droplets from sneezes/coughs of infected people

prevention → vaccine, covering the mouth, good ventilation

treatment → long term antibiotics

Measles

viral disease causing fever, cough and rash

• airborne through coughs, sneezes of infected people

prevention → measles vaccine

no specific cure

Birth Asphyxia

lack of oxygen to a baby during birth

→ skilled birth attendance + proper prenatal care

Obstetric Fistula

a hole between the birth canal and bladder or rectum caused by prolonged labour

→ access to skilled birth care and emergency obstetric services

GNI per capita

Gross National Income per capital

the total value of goods and services a country’s citizens produce, including the value of income earned by citizens who may be working in an overseas country

(country’s average income)

World Bank system classifies countries this which is the average incomes of all people → doesn’t acknowledge the variations that are experienced within any one country or between two countries in the same group

• Low income countries

• Middle income countries - upper-middle income countries, lower middle income countries

• High income countries

Economic characteristics of HIGH income countries

• lower levels of poverty

• wide range of industries

• high average incomes

• opportunities for global trade

Poverty

used to describe the lack of access to resources, often as the result of a lack of access to money

extreme poverty

the level of poverty that can be expressed as the proportion of those with incomes of less than PPP $2.15 per day (US)

Relative poverty

when a person is living on less than 50% of the country’s GNI

Poverty related to GNI group

High income - small amount living in poverty

Middle income - some of population living in poverty

Low income - large proportion of population living in poverty

Range of Industries related to GNI group

High income - high range of industries manufacturing, education, healthcare, scientific research and technology

Middle income - mixture of industries

Low income - limited range of industries usually farming and primary production → reduced average incomes= reduced taxation revenue= reduced capacity of government to provide resource → industries low

Global trade related to GNI group

High-income - High levels of global trade which reflects high levels of infrastructure

Middle income - Emerging global trade

Low income - Very few opportunities for global trade- not generating goods desired by other countries combined with low levels of infrastructure

low GNI per capita impact health and wellbeing?

• More people maybe living in poverty and need to make decisions between food and paying bills which may result in financial stress

• People may not be able to afford to pay to see a doctors hence disease such as Type 2 Diabetes may not be diagnosed and treated hence negatively impacting the body and its systems

• People may become homeless due to to poverty and lack of government social housing hence may lose a sense of belonging

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

• a measure that reflects the economic state of a country. GDP is the value of all goods and services produced in a country in a 12-month period.

Social Characteristics of High income countries

• developed legal systems

• high levels of gender equality

• low birth rates and population growth

• high levels of employment

• high levels of education

• developed social security systems

• developed health systems

• access to technology

gender equality

‘when males and females have the same opportunities in society in relation to the goods and services available’

high income - both males and females have opportunities and choices with regards to education, employment, community participation and recreation.

low income - females do not have the same opportunities as males in society and may have limited opportunities for education and often work in fields tending crops and/or spend significant time collecting water and preparing meals

Low birth rates and slow rates of population growth

high income countries - access to contraception, choice with regards to family planning, career choices and education contribute to this difference.

low/middle income - High birth rates can limit the ability of parents to care for all of their children and provide them with the resources required to live a healthy life.

education and employment levels

high income - People often have choices about the level of education and the type of career they pursue.

low income - do not have a developed education system and families usually have to pay for their children to attend school.

developed social security system

high income - High levels of economic development and stable political systems increase the ability of governments to provide social security payments for those in need.

• individuals who are unemployed, or unable to work due to illness or disability, are provided with financial support.

low/middle income - often do not have the means to provide assistance to those who are unemployed or unable to work and they are driven further into poverty.

Developed health systems

high income - generally have public health systems. people are usually able to access basic healthcare when they need it regardless of their ability to pay.

low/middle income - often lack access to suitable healthcare, which affects the level of health and wellbeing they experience.

Access to technology

high income - more accessible due to a combination of economic resources, infrastructure and education

• can be used to assist countries in developing their economies, building trade opportunities, furthering education and treating ill-health.

low income - often lack access to technology, and this impacts on the ability of citizens to gain an education and earn an income.

Developed Legal Systems

High income countries → strong + stable political and legal systems

• important for ensuring that human rights, such as the right to education and the right to live safely, are upheld, especially with the increased risk of civil conflict, which is also more common in low-income countries.

Low income countries → lack a strong legal system, and the health and wellbeing of their citizens can be affected as a result + civil conflict

Urban slums

a settlement, neighbourhood or region comprised of housing that does not provide the essential conditions required to live a health life

Environmental Characters of High Income Countries

• Food security

• Adequate housing

• Adequate infrastructure

• high levels of carbon dioxide emissions

• access to safe water and sanitation

Food Security

reliable access to sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.

high-income countries generally have access to a quality food supply.

low-income countries, however, often lack food security (i.e. experience food insecurity)

Natural disasters such as floods and droughts tend to have a more pronounced impact on the availability of food for those in low-income countries, as they lack the financial resources to purchase food in emergency situations.

Adequate Housing

Low + middle income countries often live in substandard housing with poor ventilation, lack of heating and cooling, poor resistance to infestation of disease-carrying organisms such as insects, lack of cooking facilities and running water, and poor protection from the elements.

+ urban slums

high income - adequate housing

Adequate Infrastructure

High-income countries usually have adequate roads, piped water, sewerage systems, electricity grids and telecommunication systems.

People living in low- and middle-income countries often lack access to such facilities, especially in rural and remote areas and urban slums.

High levels of carbon dioxide emissions

Due to the range of industries in high-income countries, these countries emit greater amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) per person into the atmosphere.

→ linked to climate change and the associated effects on sea levels and changing weather patterns.

Low- and middle-income countries are often the most affected by climate change as they lack the economic resources to effectively deal with the associated impacts

factors that contribute to similarities and differences in health status and human development

• access to safe water

• sanitation

• poverty

• discrimination (race, religion, sex, sexual orientation + gender identity)

Access to safe water

safe water refers to water that is not contaminated with disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, or chemicals such as lead and mercury.

low- and middle-countries are at greater risk of the effects of unsafe water → less likely to have the infrastructure to supply clean drinking water effectively (such as piped water and wells), especially if they live in rural and remote areas.

Governments of these countries often lack strict controls on water quality and monitoring, and the money to provide clean water to those who need it.

• increased rates of gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, cholera,

• Undernutrition is compounded when there is limited safe water (battling diarrhoea in conjunction with undernutrition)

• People (particularly women and children) may treck long hours to collect water= increased risk of musculoskeletal conditions, physical or sexual assault during journey.

• Missed school days due to spending time collecting water= reduced ability to increase literacy and numeracy capabilities to increase choices around meaningful employment = reduced income to access essential resources such as healthcare for a decent standard of living.

• Women are often required to trek for water (sometimes multiple times a day), which reduces their ability to participate in the life of the community by pursuing education or paid employment.

Access to Sanitation

the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces, but can also refer to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.

• requires a flushing toilet or covered latrine and the hygienic removal or containment of the waste products.

• Increased DALY associated with infectious diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid

• If soil becomes contaminated with faeces due to open defecation, this increases the risk of intestinal worms, including hookworm, roundworm and whipworm

• schools lack adequate toilet facilities in low and middle income countries, as a result of inadequate toilet facilities girls often don’t attend, especially when they are menstruating, reducing knowledge development and literacy and numeracy capabilities → future impacts to employment and an income → reduced access to essential resources (e.g. healthcare) for a decent standard of living.

• schools have toilets but they are not segregated, and this also acts as a barrier to girls attending school → reducing knowledge and capabilities

• many cultures expect girls to wait until it is dark before they can relieve themselves. This exposes them to the danger of harassment, assault (physical and sexual) and animal attacks, reducing their ability to lead productive and creative lives in accordance with their needs and interests.

Poverty prevent access to

→ inability to afford adequate housing (house lacks ventilation, cooking facilities, toilet, water connection, indoor pollution [due to presence of chimney and fire but no ventilation], lack of electricity)

→ lack of safe and secure housing OR links to inability to sleep comfortably at night= impacts to education and work.

→ inability to afford healthcare= treatable conditions go undiagnosed/unmanaged, no healthcare support during pregnancy (lack of antenatal care) or trained healthcare professionals during birth

→ reduced average incomes= reduced taxation revenue= lack of funding for public healthcare

→ reduced income to afford and send children to school for education= reduced literacy and numeracy= reduced opportunities for meaningful employment= reduced income for essential resources OR reduced health literacy= increases participating in risky behaviours e.g. unsafe sex.

→ reduced average incomes= reduced taxation revenue= reduced capacity of government to provide resources and infrastructure to support clean water and sanitation

→ inability to afford nutrient dense food= undernutrition= reduced functioning of immune system and increases susceptibility to infectious diseases.

→ inability to afford nutrient dense food= undernutrition= reduced energy to go to work/school

→ reduced average incomes= reduced taxation revenue= lack of social protection systems (reduces access to essential resources) and infrastructure (poorer roads, lack of sewerage systems and piped water, reduced global trade [no ports, airports], lack of electricity.

discrimination

when a person or group of people is treated differently than other people, often a result of factors such as race, religion, sex, sexual orientation and gender identity.

Inequality

occurs as a result of an inability to access resources such as education, employment and health care.

Race

Racial discrimination is when a person is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status’. Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities are two groups who are often discriminated against due to their race

• Social exclusion → impacts education, access to healthcare, community participation, employment and housing.

• Victims of racial discrimination become displaced from their homes as they are forced to flee and live in foreign countries as refugees or become displaced in their own country

• displacement has a flow-on effect because this new living environment might lack the resources required for a decent standard of living

Religion

Decreased access to education, healthcare and employment.

(Extreme cases): Arrested or killed

Increased morbidity rates of: Anxiety, Depression, Psychiatric disorders

Sex

Sex refers to the physiological characteristics, including the DNA and sex organs, present in an individual at birth.

globally females often have less power and control, as a result:

→ Women can miss out on: education → employment as a result

→ Many women work in jobs that are badly paid, dangerous and laborious (e.g. sex work→ HIV/AIDS)

→ In many countries women must abide by their husband’s/father’s rules- violence can occur otherwise (physical/sexual assault)

→ Often the last to be fed → malnourishment and undernutrition

→ Healthcare needs are neglected (particularly during pregnancy) → increased mortality, maternal mortality during birth.

→ When girls are forced into marriage→ reduced education, become pregnant at a young age → more likely to experience conditions such as obstetric fistula or excessive bleeding → maternal mortality is a leading cause of death for females aged 15–19 in low- and middle-income countries

→ Child brides are more likely to contract HIV/AIDS as they marry older husbands with greater sexual experience and also less likely to be educated, reducing their opportunity for meaningful employment → compounding impacts of poverty

Women who experience equality and have access to education are more likely to

→ Have fewer and healthier children

→ Marry later

→Have their children immunised and implement safe practices in terms of safe water, hygiene and sanitation (reducing infectious disease rate

→ Women hold little seats in parliament, meaning government decisions are largely decided by men and/or they have little say in issues affecting them (e.g. male perpetrated violence).

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

Procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

→ can cause severe pain,excessive bleeding (haemorrhage), infections, shock, psychological problems and death.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation describes the sex that an individual is sexually and romantically attracted to.

Those who do not identify as heterosexual are often subjected to discrimination, including being:

→ subjected to sexual assault, physical beatings and the death penalty

→ More likely to smoke, engage in risky alcohol consumption and use illicit drugs

→ refused employment, opportunities for education, healthcare

→ subjected to criminal proceedings

Gender Identity

Gender identity describes how individuals perceive themselves as male, female, a blend of both, or neither.

Those who do not identify as cisgender are often subjected to discrimination, including:

→ Experiencing higher rates of mental disorders, physical and sexual assault and self-harm, including suicide

→ Being denied the same opportunities, such as- access to education and employment opportunities

→ Being exposed to increased verbal and physical abuse

Human Development

“Creating an environment in which people can develop to their full potential and lead productive, creative lives according to their needs and interests.

It is about expanding people’s choices and enhancing their capabilities (the range of things people can be and do), having access to knowledge, health and a decent standard of living, and participating in the life of their community and decisions affecting their lives”

3ps 2cs KHD

• potential

• productive

• participate

• choices

• capabilities

• knowledge

• health

• decent standard of living

Human Development Index (HDI)

a tool developed by the United Nations to measure and rank countries’ levels of social and economic development from 0 to 1. It provides a single statistic based on three dimensions and four indicators

— a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living

— life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling and Gross National Income per capita.

Life expectancy at birth

An indication of how long a person can expect to live; it is the number of years of life remaining to a person at birth if death rates do not change

• High life expectancy is an indicator that individuals have access to knowledge, health care services and a decent standard of living such as ...

• This leads to a greater opportunity for individuals to develop to their full potential and lead productive and creative lives.

Mean years of schooling

The average number of years of education achieved by those aged 25 years and over.

• the higher the level of education the higher the adult literacy rates. This means the greater the opportunity for people to lead productive and creative lives. 

• More likely to understand health messages to  improve overall health 

• Greater opportunity to be employed and earn an income to purchase resources such as adequate housing to improve standard to living

• Educated adults generally have greater choices and have an increased capacity to participate in the life of their community and be involved in decision making processes.

Expected years of schooling

The number of years of education expected for a child of school entrance age.

GNI per capita for index

• The greater the income of individuals and communities, the greater the capacity to create environments in which people can develop to their full potential and enjoy a high level of health

• Higher incomes can increase people’s choices and provide greater access to knowledge, health services and a decent standard of living.

Advantages of HDI

1. Provides a more comprehensive measurement of human development than just taking average incomes into account → provides a broader view of how well people are living.

2. The HDI makes comparisons easier, as numerous statistics do not have to be sorted through and compared.

3. The HDI allows for social and economic progress of countries to be monitored over time, allowing for areas of improvement to be identified and acted upon. 

4. The HDI has captured the attention of media, policy makers and communities and, as a result, has raised awareness of the importance of human development. This may lead to policy review and changes.

Limitations of HDI

1. The HDI only reflects selected aspects of human development such as life expectancy, education and average income and therefore does not capture the richness and depth of human development. Does not consider factors such as  gender equality; human rights, political systems or levels of discrimination.

2. The HDI only measures averages and therefore does not take into consideration the inequalities that exist for groups of people within countries such as females, those with disabilities and those in rural areas that often experience lower levels of human development.

3. No survey data are collected in the HDI, so people’s feelings about their lives and issues facing communities are not reflected, including social, emotional, mental and spiritual health and wellbeing which are important aspects of people's lives.

4. Comparisons between countries is often difficult because some countries do not have high standards for data collection and therefore data collection can be inconsistent and may not be accurate.

Sustainability

meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

• social

• economic

• environmental

Economic Sustainability

ensuring that average incomes in all countries are adequate to sustain a decent standard of living and continue to rise in line with inflation and living costs in the future

• job creation

• trade

• economic growth

• innovation and diversity of industries

Diversity of industries

• increase opportunity for employment NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE average incomes + tax revenue → put back into country → social protection, infrastructure, healthcare, education

Job creation

• increases the capacity for economic growth NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → jobs being created → increases average incomes + GNI per capita → economic growth → tax revenue → put back into country

• increase employment opportunities NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → children do not leave school as parents have jobs → stay in school + capabilities → productive + creative

Economic growth

• provides governments with the revenue to put back into the country NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → health care, infrastructure, education, public housing

Trade

• improved trade → low + middle income countries → can trade on global market NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → increase economic growth → revenue to put back into the country → infrastructure, health care, education, public housing

Social Sustainability

refers to creating an equitable society where all people can access social resources both now and into the future

• peace and security

• promotion of political and legal rights

• access to safe and decent working conditions

• gender equality

• promote equality through the elimination of poverty and the provision of social protection systems

Peace and Security

• absence of conflict

  → reduced deaths and injuries

  → financial resources not directed to a war effort

Promotion of political and legal rights

• Minority groups represented in governments → increases protective policy development related to violence against them NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → reduce violent acts → fatal injuries + YLLs

• equal access to healthcare too → allow people to be treated diagnosed to daily activities work → income → essential resources

Elimination of poverty

poverty is eliminated → increase average incomes NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → increase access to essential resources→ hs + hwb + hd

Provision of social protection system

provides access to essential resources NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → housing, food, education

Gender Equality

sees women and girls equal access to healthcare + education NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → recieve antenatal care during pregnancy + give birth in sanitary conditions → reduced maternal mortality rates

get a job

Access to safe and decent working conditions

• can access meaningful employment NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → those with disability as well → sense of purpose →

• less CHILD LABOUR → education

Environmental Sustainability

Relates to ensuring the natural environment is used in a way that will preserve resources into the future

• biodiversity

• climate change

• waste removal and pollution

• use of natural resources

Biodiversity

• less disruptions to ecosystems → bees can continue to pollinate NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → increase crop output

• resources available such as wood to build shelter → better rest

Use of natural resources

• renewable energy such as solar or wind → electricity available in their homes NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → children can study

• little impact on the ecosystem → fishing industry can continue → people are still required in these jobs → income

Waste removal and pollution

• water is free from pollutants + disease causing pathogens NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → free of diarrhoea

• soil will be nutrient rich to produce sufficient crops NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → increase their income → essential resources

Climate change

• sea levels do not rise NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → reduces flooding → no displacement from their homes sense of belonging

• reduced extreme weather events eg bushfire → NOW AND INTO THE FUTURE → infrastructure not burnt down → schools + work + home