Argument midterm

Reluctant conclusion

A rhetorical strategy where a speaker appears to reach a conclusion unwillingly, making the argument seem more credible.

Enthymeme

A rhetorical syllogism that leaves out an obvious premise, allowing the audience to fill it in.

Controversia

A rhetorical exercise from ancient Rome where students debated hypothetical legal cases to practice argumentation.

Peritrope

A refutation technique that turns an opponent’s argument back on itself to show contradiction.

Ethos

Appeal based on the speaker’s credibility and moral character.

Logos

Appeal to logic, reason, and evidence.

Pathos

Appeal to emotion to persuade the audience.

Decorum

The principle of fitting one’s speech, tone, and behavior to the occasion and audience.

Phronesis

Practical wisdom or good judgment demonstrated by a speaker.

Dubitatio

A rhetorical device where the speaker feigns doubt or hesitation to appear sincere.

Protagoras

Early Sophist who argued that “man is the measure of all things” and that every argument has two sides.

Socrates

Greek philosopher who used questioning (the Socratic method) to expose contradictions and seek truth.

Carneades

Skeptic philosopher who argued both sides of an issue to demonstrate uncertainty and the limits of knowledge.

Antonius

Roman orator in Cicero’s De Oratore who valued natural talent and emotional appeal in persuasion.

Crassus

Roman orator in De Oratore who emphasized education, philosophy, and moral character in rhetoric.

List summaries

Condensed outlines that organize main ideas and supporting points clearly and logically.

Syllogism

A logical argument using a major premise, minor premise, and conclusion (e.g., All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal).

Deductive reasoning

Drawing a specific conclusion from general principles or premises.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions based on specific examples or observations.

Satirical summaries

Summaries that use irony or exaggeration to reveal weaknesses or absurdities in an argument.

Aidos

Sense of shame, respect, or modesty that guides ethical behavior and rhetorical restraint.

Apraxia

In rhetoric and philosophy, the idea of inaction resulting from uncertainty or skepticism.

Ataraxia

State of tranquility or freedom from disturbance achieved through suspension of judgment.

Two-logoi fragment

Protagoras’s idea that every issue has two opposing arguments that can both be validly argued.

Human-measure fragment

Protagoras’s claim that “man is the measure of all things,” meaning truth is relative to human perception.

Cicero

Roman statesman and orator who integrated philosophy and rhetoric; emphasized civic duty and moral persuasion.

Marie Hochmuth

Rhetorical theorist who studied ethos and audience adaptation in classical and modern contexts.

Lucy Stone

19th-century abolitionist and suffragist known for her rhetorical skill in public advocacy despite social barriers.

Backfire effect

When people strengthen their existing beliefs after being presented with contradictory evidence.

Cognitive debiasing

Strategies to recognize and reduce reasoning errors and emotional biases in thinking.

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one’s own thought processes; thinking about thinking.

Burden of proof

The obligation to provide evidence to support one’s claim in an argument.

Presumption

The default belief or position that remains accepted until disproven.

Argument field

The context or discipline that shapes standards for reasoning and evidence (e.g., law, science, politics).

Sophists

Ancient teachers of rhetoric who taught persuasion as a practical skill; criticized for moral relativism.

Isocrates

Athenian rhetorician who emphasized moral education, civic virtue, and practical wisdom in public speaking.

Argument Culture (Tannen & Graff)

Encourages seeing argument as dialogue instead of combat to promote understanding.

Three Forms of Persuasion (Aristotle / Heinrichs)

Uses ethos, pathos, and logos—credibility, emotion, and logic—to persuade effectively.

C-ROADS Simulation (Rooney-Varga & Klein)

Demonstrates how collaboration and evidence-based reasoning influence global climate outcomes.

Antilogic & Controversia (Mendelson)

Teaches arguing both sides of an issue to strengthen critical thinking and rhetorical skill.

Tense Switching (Heinrichs)

Shifts from past blame to present values to future choices to guide arguments toward solutions.

Toulmin Model (Palczewski, Ice & Fritch)

Breaks arguments into claim, data, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal to analyze structure.

They Say / I Say (Graff & Birkenstein)

Frames argument as conversation: summarize others’ views before presenting your own.