Results for "self actualization"

● Unique Corporate Culture: Zappos integrates happiness and motivation into its core principles, providing exceptional benefits and maintaining a flat organizational structure to enhance employee motivation and satisfaction. Motivational Strategies: The company emphasizes personal connections in customer interactions, offers substantial training with an option to quit, and focuses on creating a fulfilling work environment, reflecting a deep commitment to employee happiness and motivation. —--------------------------------------- Overview of Early Motivation Studies: ● Early motivation studies focused on understanding how individual needs drive employees to demonstrate goal-oriented behavior in order to satisfy these needs. For instance, an employee seeking companionship might frequently engage in conversations around the office to fulfill this need. Key Theories of Motivation: 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: ○ Developed by Abraham Maslow, this theory posits that human needs are organized hierarchically from the most basic to higher-level needs. ○ Levels of Needs: ■ Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs like food and water. ■ Safety Needs: Protection from danger and stability. ■ Social Needs: Desire for relationships and belonging. ■ Esteem Needs: Need for respect, recognition, and self-esteem. ■ Self-Actualization: The pursuit of realizing one’s full potential and engaging in activities that lead to growth and fulfillment. ○ Maslow’s theory suggests that once a lower-level need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator, and the individual moves to satisfy higher-level needs. 2. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer): ○ This theory modifies Maslow’s hierarchy by categorizing needs into three groups: ■ Existence Needs: Corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. ■ Relatedness Needs: Links to social needs. ■ Growth Needs: Encompasses esteem and self-actualization needs. ○ ERG theory does not maintain a strict hierarchy and acknowledges that multiple needs can be motivational at the same time. It introduces the concept of “frustration-regression, ” where individuals revert to satisfying lower-level needs if they cannot satisfy higher-level ones. 3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: ○ Frederick Herzberg identified two sets of factors that impact motivation: ■ Hygiene Factors: Elements like company policies, salary, and working conditions, which can cause dissatisfaction if not addressed. ■ Motivators: Factors intrinsic to the job such as achievement, recognition, and growth opportunities, which truly motivate employees to perform better. ○ Herzberg argued that improving hygiene factors alone does not increase job satisfaction; instead, motivators are crucial for enhancing employee motivation. 4. McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory: ○ David McClelland proposed that individuals develop certain needs based on their life experiences, which are: ■ Need for Achievement: Desire to excel and achieve in relation to a set of standards. ■ Need for Affiliation: Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. ■ Need for Power: Desire to make an impact, influence others, and have authority. ○ The dominant need influences an individual’s behavior at work and their suitability for certain roles. For example, high achievement needs are effective in roles with clear performance metrics, while high affiliation needs are beneficial in cooperative roles. Applications and Implications: ● ● Understanding these needs and theories helps managers create work environments that satisfy employee needs, thus motivating them effectively. The theories emphasize the importance of recognizing the diversity of employee needs and tailoring motivational approaches accordingly. Critiques and Limitations: ● ● While these theories have been influential, they also face criticisms such as the rigidity of need hierarchy (Maslow) and the oversimplification of motivational factors (Herzberg). Despite criticisms, these theories provide valuable frameworks for understanding employee motivation and designing effective management practices. Here’s a detailed summary of the process-based theories of motivation, as outlined in your text: Overview of Process-Based Theories of Motivation: ● Process-based theories view motivation as a rational process where individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react accordingly. This perspective focuses on understanding the cognitive processes that underpin motivated behavior. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965): ● ● ● ● ● Core Concept: People are motivated by fairness, which they assess through social comparisons of input-outcome ratios with others (referents). Inputs and Outcomes: Inputs are contributions (e.g., effort, skill), while outcomes are what people receive in return (e.g., pay, recognition). Perceptions of Equity: Fairness is perceived when one’s ratio of input to outcome matches that of their referent. Responses to Inequity: Responses can include altering perceptions, changing the input level, adjusting outcomes, or even leaving the situation. Overpayment and Underpayment: Reactions differ based on whether individuals feel over-rewarded or under-rewarded, influencing their motivation and actions. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964; Porter & Lawler, 1968): ● ● Core Concept: Motivation is determined by an individual’s rational calculation of expectancy (effort will lead to performance), instrumentality (performance will lead to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes). Application: This theory is useful for understanding how beliefs about the relationships between effort, performance, and rewards motivate people to act in certain ways. Reinforcement Theory: ● ● ● Core Concept: Behavior is shaped by its consequences, either reinforcing desired behaviors or discouraging undesired ones. Types of Reinforcement: ○ Positive Reinforcement: Increases desirable behavior by offering positive outcomes. ○ Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing negative conditions. ○ Punishment: Decreases undesired behavior through negative consequences. ○ Extinction: Reduces behavior by removing rewards. Reinforcement Schedules: Different schedules (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio) affect the durability and quality of behavior changes. Procedural and Interactional Justice: ● Beyond distributive justice (fairness of outcomes), procedural (fairness of processes used to determine outcomes) and interactional justice (treatment of individuals in the enactment of procedures) are crucial in shaping perceptions of fairness and, consequently, motivation. OB Toolbox for Fairness: ● Recommendations include recognizing diverse contributions, ensuring fairness in decision-making, treating people with respect, and maintaining transparency in rules and decisions. Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod): ● A systematic application of reinforcement theory in organizations to modify employee behaviors. It involves identifying behaviors, measuring baseline levels, analyzing antecedents and consequences, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes. Key Success Factors: 1. 2. 3. Employee Empowerment: Employees at Nucor are treated as company owners, empowered to make decisions and take actions that affect their work and the company’s operations directly. Decentralized Structure: Authority and responsibility are pushed down to lower levels, allowing line workers to undertake tasks typically reserved for management. Innovative Reward System: Nucor’s compensation strategy includes high base wages, significant annual bonuses, and profit sharing, with a strong link to company and individual performance. Modern Approaches to Job Design: ● ● ● Job Rotation: This involves periodically shifting employees to different tasks to alleviate monotony and enhance skills. Job Enlargement: Expands job tasks to add variety and increase employee engagement and satisfaction. Job Enrichment: Provides more autonomy over how tasks are performed, increasing responsibility and potentially improving job satisfaction and productivity. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1975): Identifies five core job dimensions that impact three critical psychological states, influencing job outcomes: 1. Skill Variety 2. Task Identity 3. Task Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback These dimensions contribute to feelings of meaningfulness, responsibility, and understanding of results, leading to high internal work motivation, job satisfaction, and reduced absenteeism. Empowerment: ● Extends the concept of autonomy by removing barriers that limit the potential of ● ● employees. Structurally empowered employees, who are provided with information, resources, and support to make decisions, tend to have higher job satisfaction and performance. Effective empowerment also requires a supportive management and organizational culture that genuinely delegates decision-making power to employees. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Goal Setting Goal-Setting Theory: Goal-setting is a powerful method of motivation, supported by extensive research showing that effectively set goals can enhance employee performance significantly. This approach has been broadly adopted across various sectors, including major corporations globally. SMART Goals: Effective goals are SMART—Specific, Measurable, Aggressive, Realistic, and Time-bound: ● ● ● Specific and Measurable: Goals should be clear and quantifiable to ensure performance can be evaluated accurately. Aggressive: Goals should be challenging to stimulate higher performance. Realistic: While goals should be ambitious, they must also be achievable to maintain motivation. ● Time-Bound: A clear timeline increases urgency and helps focus efforts. Why SMART Goals Motivate: Goals clarify the direction and energize employees towards achieving specific outcomes. They also encourage innovative thinking to meet challenging targets and create a sense of accomplishment upon achieving these goals. Conditions for Effective Goals: ● ● ● Feedback: Regular feedback helps align employee's efforts with their goals. Ability: Employees need the requisite skills and knowledge to achieve their goals. Goal Commitment: Commitment to goals is crucial for their effectiveness, which can be enhanced by involving employees in the goal-setting process and ensuring the goals align with their values and capabilities. Potential Downsides of Goal Setting: ● ● Goals can reduce adaptability to changing circumstances if too rigid. Overemphasis on specific goals can lead to neglect of other important duties or unethical behavior to achieve targets. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Appraisals Overview: Performance appraisals are a formal process used by organizations to assess and provide feedback on employee performance. These appraisals are crucial for employee motivation, informing decisions on rewards, promotions, and terminations. Key Features of Effective Appraisals: Effective appraisals are characterized by: ● ● ● Adequate Notice: Employees are informed about the criteria ahead of time. Fair Hearing: Appraisals include two-way communication. Evidence-Based Judgment: Decisions are based on documented performance evidence. When properly managed, performance appraisals are valuable tools for motivating employees, enhancing their development, and aligning their goals with organizational objectives. Effective appraisals require clear criteria, fair processes, and regular feedback to truly benefit both employees and the organization. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Incentives Incentive Systems Overview: Incentive systems link employee pay to performance, either on an individual or company-wide basis. Common in many organizations, these systems are designed to implement motivation theories practically, aiming to boost productivity, profits, and employee commitment through various forms of financial rewards. Types of Incentives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Piece Rate Systems: Compensation is based on the quantity of output produced. Effective in environments where output is easily measurable. Individual Bonuses: One-time rewards for achieving specific goals, enhancing motivation by providing clear, achievable targets. Merit Pay: Ongoing pay raises based on past performance, typically determined through performance appraisals. Can lead to a sense of entitlement if not carefully managed. Sales Commissions: Compensation linked to the volume or profitability of sales. Needs careful structuring to align with company goals and encourage desirable behaviors. Team Bonuses: Rewards based on team performance, suitable in environments where teamwork and collective performance are critical. Gainsharing: Rewards employees for performance improvements over previous periods, typically through cost savings or efficiency gains, fostering a culture of continuous improvement. Profit Sharing: Distributes a portion of company profits among employees, fostering loyalty and a sense of ownership among staff. Stock Options: Provides employees the option to buy company stock at a future date at a predetermined price, aligning employee interests with those of the company. Effectiveness and Challenges: While financial incentives can be powerful motivators, they also have potential downsides such as promoting risk-averse behavior and diminishing creativity. Incentives may also lead employees to focus narrowly on rewarded behaviors, potentially at the expense of other important duties or organizational citizenship behaviors. Key Considerations for Effective Incentives: ● ● ● Incentives should be clearly aligned with organizational goals and strategies. The structure of incentives should balance between encouraging desired behaviors and allowing flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances. Companies should be aware of the potential for incentives to encourage unethical behavior or excessive risk-taking. Conclusion: Properly designed and implemented, performance incentives can significantly enhance motivation and performance. However, they require careful management to ensure they support broader organizational objectives and promote a healthy, collaborative, and innovative work culture. Overview of Trait Approaches: Early leadership studies focused on identifying traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders, exploring various personality characteristics and physical attributes. Although initially deemed inconclusive, modern research, particularly with the advent of the Big Five personality framework, has successfully linked certain traits with leadership capabilities. Key Leadership Traits: 1. Intelligence: Both general mental ability (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) are associated with leadership emergence and effectiveness. EQ's role becomes critical in managing oneself and interpersonal relationships effectively. 2. Big Five Personality Traits: ○ Extraversion: Strongly correlated with leadership emergence and effectiveness; extraverts' sociability and assertiveness make them visible leader candidates. ○ Conscientiousness: Organized and persistent traits contribute to leadership emergence and effectiveness. ○ Openness to Experience: Creativity and openness to new experiences are linked to innovative leadership. 3. Self-Esteem: High self-esteem enhances an individual's self-confidence and leadership perception. 4. Integrity: Honesty and moral integrity are crucial for leaders to maintain trustworthiness and ethical standards. Limitations of Trait Approaches: Trait approaches initially failed to consider situational contexts which can significantly influence leadership effectiveness. The recognition of this limitation led to a more nuanced understanding that the effectiveness of certain traits may depend heavily on specific organizational contexts or scenarios. Application in Modern Leadership: Understanding the impact of these traits helps in selecting and developing effective leaders. It’s recognized that the relevance of specific traits can vary, depending on the organizational context and the specific demands of the leadership role. Conclusion: Trait theories have evolved to highlight the importance of both identifying essential leadership traits and understanding the situational factors that influence the effectiveness of these traits in various leadership contexts. This dual focus aids in the more targeted development and placement of leaders within organizations. Leader Decision Making: Leaders use various decision-making styles, which include: 1. 2. Authoritarian: The leader makes decisions unilaterally. Democratic: Employees participate in the decision-making process. 3. Laissez-Faire: The leader provides minimal guidance and allows employees to make decisions independently. The effectiveness of these styles varies based on the organizational context and the specific situation, with democratic styles generally increasing employee satisfaction but not necessarily impacting productivity significantly. Laissez-faire leadership is often negatively associated with employee satisfaction and effectiveness. Leadership Assumptions about Human Nature: Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y outline two opposing perceptions of employee motivation: ● Theory X: Assumes employees are inherently lazy and require strict supervision and ● control. Theory Y: Views employees as self-motivated and responsive to tasks that are satisfying and fulfilling. Leaders' assumptions about human nature can influence their management style, with Theory Y leaders tending to be more supportive and empowering. Limitations of Behavioral Approaches: Behavioral approaches to leadership are criticized for their failure to consider the context in which leadership occurs. What works in one organizational setting might not work in another, indicating the necessity for leaders to adapt their behaviors to the specific demands and culture of their organization. Key Takeaway: Behavioral approaches highlight the importance of leaders’ actions and their decision-making styles in influencing their effectiveness and the satisfaction of their teams. These approaches also underscore the need for adaptability in leadership practices, reflecting the varying needs of different organizational environments. ● ● ● ● ● Contingency Leadership Context: Leadership effectiveness varies with the situation; no single style is universally effective. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory: Categorizes leaders as task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Effectiveness depends on the match between a leader's style and situational favorableness, influenced by leader-member relations, task structure, and leader's power. Situational Leadership Theory (SLT): Proposes adjusting leadership style based on follower readiness, combining directive and supportive behaviors to meet follower development needs. Path-Goal Theory: Based on expectancy theory of motivation, leaders facilitate employee paths to goals by adjusting their behaviors (directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented) to fit employee and task characteristics. Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Decision Model: Guides leaders on the level of employee involvement in decision-making based on several situational variables, offering a range from autocratic to delegative styles. ● Overall Insight: Contingency theories emphasize adapting leadership styles to the context, follower characteristics, and specific organizational circumstances for optimal leadership effectiveness. Here’s a summarized version in bullet points: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders align employee goals with their own, focusing on the company's well-being. ○ Transactional leaders manage through clear structures and rewards for performance. Tools of Transformational Leaders: ○ Charisma: Inspire and garner admiration from followers. ○ Inspirational Motivation: Provide a compelling vision of the future. ○ Intellectual Stimulation: Encourage innovation and creativity. ○ Individualized Consideration: Offer personal attention and mentorship. Transactional Leadership Methods: ○ Contingent Rewards: Provide tangible rewards for tasks completed. ○ Active Management by Exception: Proactively prevent problems. ○ Passive Management by Exception: Intervene only when standards are not met. Effectiveness: ○ Transformational leadership is often more effective, enhancing motivation, performance, and satisfaction. ○ Transactional styles also show effectiveness, particularly when excluding passive management by exception. Trust and Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders are likely to be trusted more because they show concern for followers and communicate values effectively. Can Charisma Be Trained?: ○ Charisma isn't solely innate; it can be developed despite being somewhat influenced by personality traits like extraversion and neuroticism. Dark Side of Charisma: ○ Charisma can lead to blind allegiance, potentially harming organizations if not accompanied by other solid leadership qualities. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: ○ Focuses on the type of relationship leaders form with individual members. ○ High-quality LMX relationships result in mutual trust, respect, and obligation. ○ Benefits include greater job satisfaction, performance, and organizational commitment. Developing High-Quality LMX: ○ Leaders can foster high-quality exchanges by being fair, dignified, and trusting. ○ Employees can enhance relationships through seeking feedback, being open to learning, and showing initiative. These points outline the core elements of contemporary approaches to leadership, emphasizing the situational effectiveness of different leadership styles and the importance of leader-member relationships. Week 5: Motivation Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. What is Motivation? ○ Definition: A set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an individual, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence. 2. Components of Motivation: ○ Direction: Focuses on the goals towards which effort is directed. ○ Intensity: Measures how hard a person tries. ○ Persistence: Examines how long a person can maintain effort. 3. Theoretical Perspectives in Studying Motivation: ○ Need Theories: What motivates people through understanding their needs. ○ Process Theories: How motivation occurs through interactions within the environment. 4. Need Theories: ○ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization. ○ Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Simplifies Maslow’s into three core needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. ○ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Distinguishes between Motivators (satisfaction) and Hygiene factors (dissatisfaction). ○ McClelland’s Theory of Social Motives: Focuses on Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. 5. Process Theories: ○ Behavioral Theories: Emphasizes the role of reinforcement. ○ Cognitive Choice Theories: Centers on decision-making processes like Expectancy Theory. ○ Self-Regulation Theories: Includes Goal Setting Theory advocating for SMART goals. Need Theories: ● ● Understand the basic needs outlined in Maslow’s Hierarchy (from physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top) and how each level motivates behavior. Recognize that only unsatisfied needs motivate. Alderfer’s ERG Theory condenses Maslow’s into three groups: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth, which can be pursued simultaneously and can regress based on frustration. ● ● Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory differentiates between Hygiene factors (which prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate) and Motivators (which truly drive employees to perform better). McClelland’s Theory focuses on the needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power. Unlike Maslow’s, these needs are not in any order and can vary in intensity between individuals. Process Theories: ● Expectancy Theory: Effort leads to performance (Expectancy), performance leads to outcomes (Instrumentality), and outcomes are valued (Valence). Understanding the connections between these elements helps predict employee motivation to engage in a behavior. Goal Setting Theory: ● Goals must be SMART—specific enough to clarify what is expected, measurable to gauge progress, achievable yet challenging, relevant to the individual’s role, and time-bound with a deadline. Goals effectively direct attention, mobilize effort, enhance persistence, and promote the development of strategies and action plans. Week 6: Leadership Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. Introduction to Leadership: ○ Definition: The process of influencing others towards the achievement of goals. 2. Theoretical Perspectives on Leadership: ○ Trait Approach: Identifies personality traits that distinguish leaders. ○ Behavioral Approach: Observes behaviors that are effective for leadership. 3. Contingency Theories: ○ Fiedler’s Contingency Model: Matches leader’s style with the situation to optimize effectiveness. ○ House’s Path-Goal Theory: Adjusts leadership behavior to employee and environmental needs. 4. Contemporary Approaches to Leadership: ○ Transformational Leadership: Focuses on visionary, inspiring, and change-inducing behaviors. ○ Transactional Leadership: Relies on exchanges and rewards to influence employee behaviors. 5. Charismatic and Servant Leadership: ○ ○ Charismatic Leadership: Relies on the leader’s magnetic personality to influence and inspire followers. Servant Leadership: Prioritizes the needs of others and aims to serve rather than lead in the traditional sense. Info for Quiz Preparation: ● ● ● ● Motivation Lecture: Understand the specific components of each theory, particularly how they explain the direction, intensity, and persistence of motivation. Leadership Lecture: Be able to distinguish between different leadership styles and theories, especially noting how transformational leaders differ from transactional ones and the specific conditions under which each leadership style might be most effective according to contingency theories. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: Focus on how expectancy (effort leads to performance), instrumentality (performance leads to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes) interact to motivate behavior. Goal Setting Theory: Understand how setting SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) goals can directly influence motivation and performance, supporting with examples if possible. These notes are organized to aid in understanding complex psychological theories by breaking them down into their core components, crucial for preparing for quizzes that may test comprehension and application of these concepts. ● ● ● Differences between Transformational and Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational Leaders: Inspire and motivate employees to exceed normal levels of performance through charismatic leadership styles, visionary, and stimulating approaches. They focus on changing existing perceptions and motivating followers to put group or organizational interests first. ○ Transactional Leaders: Focus on maintaining the normal flow of operations using a system of rewards and penalties. They are practical and traditional, ensuring that staff follow procedures and perform their designated tasks. ○ Effective Conditions: Transformational leadership is effective in dynamic and competitive environments that require innovation and change. Transactional leadership works well in stable environments where tasks are routine, and the primary goal is efficiency. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: ○ Dive deeper into how employees weigh the perceived costs and benefits of making an effort. An employee's motivation to perform is increased if they believe that their effort will lead to good performance (Expectancy), that good performance will be rewarded (Instrumentality), and that they will find the reward satisfactory (Valence). Goal Setting Theory: ● ● ○ Specific goals increase performance; difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals; feedback enhances the effect of specific and difficult goals. This is because specific and challenging goals focus attention and foster a persistent effort, leading to the development of effective strategies. Additional Insights For Expectancy Theory, prepare to apply scenarios where employees might perceive high or low expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, and predict their motivation outcomes

The Humanistic-Existential Approach Human Needs and Self-Actualization

FINALS Lesson 1: An Embodied Spirit Coexisting with the Environment Human Being’s Understanding of Himself/Herself Human being is the source of many questions about the existence of the world and everything that exists in it. When he/she is confronted with the question “Who Am I,” which directly unveils his/her existence, he/she is pushed to the limit of existence. Jose Rizal believes that because a human being is endowed with reason, he/she wonders and questions about everything including his/her existence. Who Am I? According to Rizal and Kant Human being is endowed with reason He is self autonomous with self regulating will According to Karl Jaspers Human being is more than what he/she knows about himself/herself (Perennial Scope of Philosophy) According to Kant, human individuals… determine themselves through their interaction with their environment. they act autonomously, they make choices, including moral choices, with the aid of their reason. They have a strict duty to make these choices in accordance with moral law. Karl Jaspers Believes that human, the being of human is lost in a context of total determination. Thus what seems to be an obvious and ordinary question “Who am I” leads him/her into the depth of his/her being. This task summons him/her to leave the ordinariness of given time and context of his/her existence. Human beings Encounter with Existential Limit Situation Limit Situations German: Grenzsituation Any of certain situations in which a human being is said to have differing experiences from those arising from ordinary situations. Boundary Situations are inescapable and inevitable breaks of ordinary patterns of human existence, such as death, sufferings, conflict, tragedy, sickness, failures, communication, struggles and guilt. These boundary situations break the conventional pattern or ordinaryness of life. According to Jaspers, boundary situations lead.. to a deeper consciousness and experience of her limitations and fortitude. humans to a deeper level of reflection of her own self being. Sickness and Pain are opportunities to know more about yourself as human beings. Lesson 2: Various Ways in Dealing with the Question “Who Am I? In the Course of History Duality of Body and Soul Our body is separate and distinct from the soul Soul is immaterial Body shows corporeality (existing as physical body) We have soul or spirit (Lorenz 2009) Soul or the spirit is philosophically discussed as mind. For dualists, mind (mental) is not to be mistaken as brain (physical) since the mental is a unique phenomenon that cannot be reduced to a non mental or physical. Dualism a philosophical theory based on the idea of opposing concepts, human beings are made up of two independent constituents, the body and the mind or soul. Plato believes in the dualism of body and soul Human soul exist prior to the body and even if after the body is gone Doctrine is connected to theory of forms, material is separate from spiritual realm of forms or essences (world of ideas) Physical world is made up of appearances (destructible, illusionary and unreliable) or copies of what is real. Knowledge is to be found in the realm of ideas or essences which are eternal and true. The soul that humans possess pre-existed in the world of forms or ideas. Soul is immortal, learning is mere remembering or recollecting what the soul once knew when it was in the realm of forms. Rene Descartes Also recognized dualism He exists because doubt requires a doubter Him doubting is proof that he exists. He that exists is clearly a thing that thinks. He acknowledge that he is a body that is bound by some figure that can be located in some place and occupy space. Has the power to move, feel and think - this is attributed to body and soul. Unity of Body and Soul Thomas Aquinas Did not believe dualism Body and soul are not two separate entities, that interact with each other but are one being made up of matter and form Matter (body) and form (soul) cannot remain a being if matter and form are not united. A being ceases to exist in death, because the matter and form that make up that being is no longer complete. Whole is the sum of its parts, remove one part it is no longer whole. Aristotle Man is the whole of his body and soul. They are one like the oneness of the ugly and his figure. The relation of the body to the soul is the relation of matter to form. The body and soul are only two aspects of the whole man. Are the Spirit and Soul the same? Your soul speaks of your inner-life in relation to your own experience: your mind, heart, will, and imagination. It also includes your thoughts, desires, passions, and dreams. But your spirit speaks of the same inner-life in relation to God: your faith, hope, love, character, and perseverance. BODY, SOUL and SPIRIT according to Christian Perspective Body (Soma) – The Outermost Man 5 physical senses: smell, taste, touch, hear, see physical needs & desires: food, water, activity, shelter, clothing, oxygen, sleep, temperature regulation (FoWaSh TeReSOCA) Soul (Psyche) – The Outer Man SELF - identity, personality, character EMOTIONS - feelings & passions EVIL - dwelling place of sinful nature & evil spirits CONSCIENCE - know right from wrong INTELLECT - mind & thoughts WILL - your own will & desires (Seeciw) Spirit (Pneuma) – The Inner Man Spiritual Discernment Peace Revelation True Ministry Communicate with God Home of the Holy Spirit (Speret Coho) Human Consciousness and Existence John Locke advanced the theory of tabula rasa (blank slate or page) thoughts are conscious (we reflect and introspect) our consciousness is the criterion (standard) for personal identity as a thinking being ourselves consists of thoughts and sensation (physical feeling) of which we are conscious (awareness). Rene Descartes ( I ) self is a thinking thing. But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. -said in Meditations on First Philosophy He exists and continues to exist as long as he is a “thing that thinks”. This consciousness that allows us to know that we exist composes our soul, which is a substance for Descartes, self-identity depends on consciousness. Immanuel Kant The self is a rational agent who can know their own thoughts and attitudes, and be responsible for them. Intentionality of consciousness (Phenomenologists) Feelings are being awakened by consciousness (Existentialists) To a phenomenologists, Man as an embodied subjectivity that gives meaning , with his body making incarnate or alive the meaning he gives (Dy 2001) Consciousness is thought that is always directed towards an object. Existentialists on the other hand confront the possibility. I might have been someone else or might have not existed (Tallis 2004). Our mind presents phenomena that are distinct from those experienced by the body. The Faculty of Reason Human beings have a mental faculty or capacity that enables them to think, reason, understand, compare, analyze, associate ideas. Human Being a Limited Being “The soul is the essence of the self” According to Aristotle the three kinds of soul: vegetative, sentient, and rational. Vegetative Soul includes the physical body that can grow. Sentient Soul includes sensual desires, feelings, and emotions. Rational Soul is what makes man human. It includes the intellect that allows man to know and understand things. Thus, Aristotle suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and fulfilling life (self-actualization). The pursuit of happiness is a search for a good life that includes doing victorious actions. In saying this, he posits (postulates) that part of the rational soul is characterized by moral virtues such as justice and courage. St. Augustine of Hippo a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority in theological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Ages and remained, in the Western Christian tradition, uncontested till the 19th century. The impact of his views on sin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly be overrated. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2019) He ultimately viewed the body as the "spouse" of the soul, both attached to one another by a "natural appetite." He believes that the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and complete. As a religious philosopher, he contemplates on the nature of man with emphasis on the soul as an important element of man. He believes that the soul is what governs and defines a man. Augustine espouses the significance of reflection and the importance of prayers and confessions to arrive at a justification for the existence of God. For him, "knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us." Descartes asserts that the "thinking self" and "physical body" are distinct, they are complete opposites. He says that the mind houses our understanding, intellect, and passion. While our body is just a shape with different sizes that showcase motion. "I think, therefore I am". "I think therefore I am." Cogito ergo sum This phrase was first seen in his literary work “Discourse on Method”. For him, the act of thinking about the self (or being self conscious) is in itself proof that there is a self . John Locke bases his argument on his conception that human minds are blank slates or—tabula rasas—at birth. So, to develop a sense of ‘self’, we must experience and create memories. From there, after having gathered these experiences, we are able to mold and shape the self because we slowly become conscious of our abilities to think, reason, and introspect; we have developed a sense of ‘self’. If one remains unconscious, they are unable to construct themselves. Therefore, the ability to be conscious of oneself constitutes one of having a self. "The self is consciousness." David Hume a Scottish philosopher Hume says that in the content of one's experience, there will be two distinct entities ; impressions and ideas . Hume talks about how the self is just an illusion. "There is no self." Karl Jasper We see man’s body in its comparable expression. It belongs to man himself, has its own unique specificity, its nobility and beauty. The Relation of I and the Body The capacity of the human being to think or feel is the very basis of consciousness of the “I” of its existential existence; that tangibly exists as a thinking substance My body- main basis for reflection and self consciousness Loss of consciousness and arousal are frequent after severe brain injuries. Usually, patients recover from this transient state of coma to a normal state of consciousness even though they can suffer from various cognitive deficits. Paul Churchland Self is inseparable from the brain The brain is all that a person has, therefore if it is lost, the person is no longer there. A person's concept of self is given by their actual brain, not their fictional mind. Since the mind cannot be perceived by the senses, it does not actually exist. "The self is the brain." 10 Signs of People with Dementia Memory loss Difficulty performing familiar tasks Problems with language Disorientation to time and place Poor or decreased judgment Problems keeping track of things Misplacing things Changes in mood and behavior Challenges understanding visual and spatial information Withdrawal from work or social activities Bertrand Russel The British philosopher described them—each in his own case. Each person seems to have direct, immediate knowledge of his own conscious sensations and of the contents of his propositional attitudes—what he consciously thinks, believes, desires, hopes, fears, and so on. Immanuel Kant Our minds actively sort, organize, relate, and synthesize the fragmented, fluctuating collection of sense data that our sense organs take in. The unity of consciousness is a phrase invented by Kant to describe the fact that the thoughts and perceptions of any given mind are bound together in a unity by being all contained in one consciousness—my consciousness. "We construct the self." Kant disagrees with the notion that the self is formed or developed through experiences. He doesn’t believe that experiences and the self must co-exist for there to be a self. ➢ The self already pre-exists before we experience anything. It is the one that processes our experiences and synthesizes them into something familiar, orderly, and meaningful. "We construct the self." Sigmund Freud Austrian psychotherapist (he is not a philosopher) according to Freud, the self has three layers to the self: the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious. The Unconscious Mind Conscious – The small amount of mental activity we know about. Thoughts Perceptions Preconscious – Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried Memories Stored Knowledge Unconscious – Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of Fears Unacceptable Desires Violent Motives Irrational Wishes Immoral Urges Selfish Needs Shameful Experiences Traumatic Experiences Gilbert Ryle According to British philosopher ,the self is best defined as a pattern of behavior, or as a person's tendency or disposition to behave in a particular way under specific conditions. Ryle’s concept of the human self thus provides the philosophical principle, “I act therefore I am.” There are complex and personal connections between the body and mind that are inherent (inborn). He says that behavior reveals the full range of human dispositions, which make up the mind. However, Ryle is certain that the complete system of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that comprise the human self is expressed by the mind. Maurice Merleau-Ponty All self-knowledge is derived from the "phenomena" of experience. The "I" is a composite of mental, physical, and emotional components. Individuals will realize that the mind and body are one. He notes in his book, Phenomenology of Perception, that everything that people are aware of is contained within the consciousness. Consciousness is a dynamic form that actively structures conscious thoughts and actions. "The self is embodied subjectivity." The embodied self is, at the same time, subjectively aware of the world, and objectively part of the world as a human, animal, or other being. The self in the first sense will here be called “subject for the world” and in the second “object in the world.” Consciousness – means awareness of self and environment. I-existence Certainty of something is always related and rooted on the very foundation of reflection: “my body” My body feels something (reality) My body senses (touches, smells, hears) the I - existence and the existence outside of itself. Objectives Recognize own limitations or possibilities for one’s transcendence Evaluate own limitations and the possibilities for one’s transcendence Thomas Aquinas Of all creatures human beings have the unique ability to change themselves and things for the better. Human beings are moral agents Humans are both spiritual and material; our spirituality separates us from animals. It separates the moral dimension of our fulfillment in action. We have conscience, determining good and evil are our responsibility. Evaluate our Limitations and the Possibilities for Transcendence Forgiveness as a conscious, deliberate decision to release feelings of resentment or vengeance toward a person or group who has harmed you, regardless of whether they actually deserve your forgiveness. It frees us from our anger and bitterness caused by the actions and/or words of another.On the other hand, the hardness of our heart is reinforced by a whole series of rational arguments. Failure Failures force us to confront our weaknesses and limitations and to surrender to a mystery or look upon a bigger world. Acceptance of our failures makes us hope and trust that all can be brought into good. Loneliness It is our choice to live in an impossible world where we are always “happy” or to accept a life where solitude and companionship have a part. Our experience of loneliness can help us realize that our dependence on other people or gadgets is a possessiveness that we can be free from. Love To love is to experience richness, positivity, and transcendence. Love can open in us something which takes us beyond ourselves. Transcendence We have to struggle to regain spontaneous and vital awareness of our own spirituality. Transcendental and transcendence convey the basic ground concept from the words’ literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond, with varying connotations in its different historical and cultural stages. The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit Theism is the belief that at least one god exists and that he or they created the universe and governs it. Deism is the belief that a higher being, i.e. god exists, but does not tell people what to do. Monotheism follows the same context as theism, except that it states there is only one God, hence religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam fall under monotheism. Polytheism follows all the principles of theism, except that it believes that there is more than one god, which defines the beliefs of religions such as Hinduism. Oriental Philosophy Connected to mythology and is religious in nature. Persian Philosophy (Zoroastrianism) Indian Philosophy (Buddhism & Hinduism) Chinese Philosophy (Daoism & Confucianism) Eastern Philosophy Eastern Philosophy is a diverse approach to life and philosophizing, particularly centered on understanding the process of the universe and endless “becoming”. centered on spirituality Parameters of Comparison Eastern Religions Western Religions Beliefs most of them have a core belief of Karma and Dharma mostly based on day to day good deeds and the concept of judgment day Geography East and Southeast Asia mostly no religion is ever geographically bound. Mostly in the Western world no religion is based on boundaries. Existence of Supreme Power Have a varying degree of polytheists( Hinduism) to monotheists( Buddhism) They are mostly Monotheists where they believe in only one God. Consists of Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Confucianism. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Evangelicalism & Catholicism. Zoroastrianism Principle Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Belief about God One God. Concept of Deity One good God who is always fighting against evil Life after Death Eternal life in either heaven or hell Practices Fire is used in worship and they pray 5 times a day. Goal of Religion To serve God by doing good deed for others Belief There is a battle going on between Ahura Mazda, the good God, and Ahriman, the evil God. Sacred Scriptures The Gathas, Yashts, and the Vendidad Three Basic Teachings of Hinduism Dharma the religious duty of people to follow the principles of cosmic order rules that guide morality of human beings Adherence to Dharma means following the laws and virtues of good living Dharma is an important concept found in many spiritual philosophies from the Indian subcontinent, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Karma set of individual rules to a specific person’s life, based on their status and deeds in both their current and past lives. Any future existence depends upon a person’s good or evil actions. Moksha The state of escaping the sufferings of the physical world in death. It is the end goal in a person's life and marks the end of the cycle of rebirth. Three Main Spiritual Philosophies on Transcendence Hinduism At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea of human beings’ quest for absolute truth, so that one’s soul and the Brahman or Atman (Absolute Soul) might become one. The “AUM” symbol (or OM – the symbol in the center) symbolizes the Universe and the ultimate reality. It is the most important Hindu symbols. At the dawn of creation, from emptiness first emerged a syllable consisting of three letters – A-U-M (often written as OM). Atman A Sanskrit word that means inner self, spirit, or soul; the essence of an individual. There is a soul called Atman, Atman assumes a physical body through reincarnation (depending on the merits of one’s deeds. Atman transmigrates during birth and rebirth until liberation is reached (samsara) Atman however is connected to Bhraman (absolute self) All living things are connected intimately, hurting another being is hurting oneself because the connection between the two beings (Brahman-Atman) is severed, causing suffering. Hinduism is against killing any kind of living being (practice of ahimsa, or nonviolence to all living being). Human beings have dual nature: the spiritual and immortal essence (soul) which is considered real; and the empirical life and character. Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but is bound by the Law of Karma (action) to the world of matter, which it can escape only after spiritual progress through an endless series of births. Closely involved in the Hindu doctrine of reincarnation. The determining factor that decides the state of a person's rebirth is her action. Caste System Religious system of reincarnation Higher caste members are worthy of privileges because of good karma Lower classes hoped to improve their social status in the future lives if they behave well in the present According to the Upanishads, Atman and Brahman are part of the same substance; Atman returns to Brahman when Atman is finally liberated and is no longer reincarnated. This return, or reabsorption into Brahman, is called Moksha. When they merge at last into pure Being. Humanity’s basic goal in life is the liberation (moksha) of spirit (jiva). Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a continuous cycle (samsara) where the body goes through a transmigratory series of birth and death, even though the spirit is neither born nor dies. Dharma (Duty) Karma (Action & Reaction) Moksha (Escaping Samsara) One’s place in society What goes around comes around Attaining “heaven” One’s duty By following Dharma, one “builds up good Karma Escape from the cycle of life, death, rebirth, life, death, rebirth, etc. One’s path Consequence Becoming one with Brahman Things you do in this life Determines one’s social position in the next life Ultimate goal of Hinduism Whatever one does to acquire Artha (Wealth) should be bound by Dharma. Else, one is sure to end up in a chaotic life of suffering. Moksha (liberation from the Samsara — from the cycle of births and deaths) is considered the highest goal of life. The Hindu dharma (Righteousness) does not permit an unbridled life of carefree enjoyment; everything has its preset boundaries. ‘Eat, drink and be merry’ is never considered the goal of life. Kama (pleasure) Hinduism permits enjoyment within boundaries. Hindu Gods and Goddesses (33 Million) In Hinduism, there is a belief in three highest deities, this is called Trimurti (trinity), of which Brama, is the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer. Added Notes Goddess Consorts Saraswati, the goddess of speech is to Brahma Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth is to Vishnu Parvati worship as mother goddess is to Shiva Unless the individual exerts real efforts to break away or liberate one’s spirit from the monotonous cycle, there will be no end to the cycle. Ultimate liberation, that is, freedom from rebirth, is achieved the moment the individual attains the stage of life emancipation. Hindu’s view of reality places a lot of emphasis on the attainment of self-knowledge. The goal of human life as conceived by the different Upanishads (text) is to overcome congenital ignorance. True knowledge (vidya) consists of an understanding and realization of the individual’s real self (atman) as opposed to lower knowledge that is limited to an interpretation of reality based solely on the data offered by sense experience. One concept common to all expressions of Hinduism is the oneness of reality. When we realize this unity with the absolute, we realize our true destiny. Also common to all Hindu thought are the four primary values: wealth, pleasure, duty, and enlightenment. To understand enlightenment, one must understand the law of karma, the law of sowing and reaping. The wheel of existence turns until we achieve enlightenment. Buddhism Origins developed in India 2500 years ago based on many of the core concepts of Hinduism essence of Buddhism is the attainment of enlightenment points to a way of life that avoids self-indulgence and self-denial. no supreme god or deity in Buddhism Divisions of Buddhism Theravada – found in Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, & in part, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Malaysia Mahayana – found in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam Vajrayana – found in Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Mongolia Jodo Shin or Pure Land Buddhism – mainly from India, Japan Zen – mostly in Japan Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BC) Born in NE India (Nepal) Raised in great luxury to be a king At 29, he rejected his luxurious life to seek enlightenment and the source of suffering Lived a strict ascetic life for 6 years Rejecting this extreme, sat in meditation, and found nirvana. Became “The Enlightened One” at 35. Founder Siddhartha Gautama or Buddha (means “enlightened one”) lived in the 5th century BC born into the Brahmin caste-led a luxurious lifestyle Became troubled by the human misery that he saw around him everyday Upon reflection, he deduced that desire was the root caused of all suffering (enlightened under a Bodhi Tree) not considered a god by his followers Main Philosophy The Four Noble Truths – Siddartha’s philosophy of the nature of human suffering and its relation to desire is articulated by these four statements: Life is full of pain and suffering. Human desire causes this suffering By putting an end to desire, humans can end suffering Humans can end desire by following the Eightfold path. The Eightfold Path Wisdom (WIVIRIN) Right View – Know the truth Right Intention – Resist self-centeredness Ethical Conduct (ECSAL) Right Speech Right Action Right Livelihood Mental Discipline (MEAR) Right Effort Right Awareness Right Meditation Reincarnation (Samsara) concept that one must go through many cycles of birth, living, and death After many such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana (a state of liberation and freedom from suffering) Nirvana can be achieved from meditating and following the guiding principles of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths and 8-fold Path Karma the law that every cause has an effect, i.e., our actions have results. This explains a number of things: inequality in the world, why some are born handicapped and some gifted. Buddhists believe that our past actions have an effect on who or what we are in our next life. Symbol of Buddhism Wheel of Life (Bhavacakra) – represents the endless cycle of life through reincarnation. Each of its eight spokes represents one of the teachings of the Eightfold Path. Lotus Flower – symbolizes purity and divine birth. The different color lotus flowers have specific meanings: for example, the red lotus signifies the qualities of the heart. The Wheel of Life, a diagram depicting samsara, brings together all the different factors that define and characterize the cycle of conditioned existence. Practices of Buddhism Live by this moral code: Do not take the life of anything living (non-violence / ahimsa) Do not take anything not freely given (stealing) Abstain from sexual misconduct and sensual overindulgence Refrain from untrue speech (lying) Avoid intoxication (drinking) Do not lose mindfulness Meditation training the mind to empty all of thoughts. When this happens, what is important becomes clear. Vegetarianism Many Buddhists today eat only vegetarian foods, and most groups will instruct on a healthy vegetarian diet. Buddhism Concept of Person/Being/HumanMan Anatta means “no self” and the doctrine of anatta is the Buddha’s most unique and radical teaching We usually assume that beyond our changing body, mind, and experience is an unchanging and unique ego or self Having identified this self “me” we then identify other things as “mine” This, according to the Buddha, is the cause of much of the distress and pain humans inflict upon themselves and others through greed, fear, ignorance, hatred, and self-deception

Structural-Functionalism perspective means stratification is necessary to induce people with special intelligence, knowledge and skills. Self-actualization developed by education applied in real life situations to help one reach full potential and establish oneself as a whole Primary education is a human right because it is essential in the early stages of human development Informal, is the type of education the family imparts to the child The function of Special Education in the Philippine Educational system is to develop the maximum potential of the child with special needs) The importance of education in society is to provides knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, cultural norms and values. Established the free school system with English as the medium of instruction) is the important contribution the Americans gave to Philippine educational system IPRA Law addresses Ethnic minorities Adaptation a change by which an organism becomes better suited to its environment Behavioral Adaptation that is composed of the inherited behavior chains and ability to Tearn Forced Migration is a kind of migration exists when a person move against his will Date : Date : such as slaves or when the move is initiated because of external factors such as natural disaster or civil war Social inequality is the difference in the distribution of social desirables. Social relationships are better these days than during the colonization period because the present government implemented laws to regulate and protect people's rights ( The 4P's program of the government gave the cash grants to the poorest of the poor. International inequality is the term used to call the inequalities between countries Conditional Cash Transfer is the other term for the 4P's Land Transfer)supports the Agrarian Reform Program in the Philippines Land Reform Law is a program of the government that required the big land owner to transfer their excess land property (Gender and Development justifies RA 9710 otherwise known as Magna Carta for Women The function of the government in addressing social inequalities is to provides laws to minimize social inequalities

Characteristics of Self-Actualization (Mental Health)

Maslow Self- Actualization

Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization and Human Needs

Exercise 3.02: Identify each need as a (P) physiological need, (S) safety need, (L) love/social need, (E) esteem need, or an example of (SA) self-actualization.

Here'S A Brief Definition For Each Concept Listed In Ap Psychology From Your Worksheet: ### Ap Psychology Concepts **263. Schachter & Singer’S Theory**: Proposes That Emotion Results From The Interaction Between Physiological Arousal And The Cognitive Interpretation Of That Arousal. **264. Suproxim Experiment**: This Does Not Seem To Be A Standard Term In Ap Psychology. Please Verify If The Term Is Correct. **265. James-Lange Theory Of Emotion**: Suggests That Emotions Occur As A Result Of Physiological Reactions To Events. According To This Theory, You Feel Sad Because You Cry, And You Feel Happy Because You Smile. **266. Cannon-Bard Theory Of Emotion**: Proposes That Emotional And Physiological Responses Occur Simultaneously Following A Stimulating Event. **267. Richard Lazarus’S Appraisal Theory**: Suggests That Emotions Are Determined By An Individual'S Cognitive Appraisal Of A Situation, Considering How The Situation Will Affect Their Personal Well-Being. **268. Facial Feedback Theory (Paul Ekman)**: Suggests That Facial Expressions Can Influence Emotional Experiences. **269. Joseph Ledoux’S Theory Of Emotional Appraisal**: Focuses On The Neural Mechanisms Of Emotion, Emphasizing The Role Of The Amygdala In The Processing Of Emotional Responses. **270. Hans Selye**: Known For His Research On Stress And The Development Of The Concept Of The General Adaptation Syndrome, Which Describes The Body'S Short-Term And Long-Term Reactions To Stress. **271. General Adaptation Syndrome**: A Three-Stage Process That Describes The Physiological Changes The Body Goes Through When Under Stress: Alarm, Resistance, And Exhaustion. **272. Lewin’S Motivational Conflict Theory**: Deals With Different Types Of Conflict Situations In Motivation: Approach-Approach, Approach-Avoidance, And Double Approach-Avoidance. **273. Id, Ego, Superego**: Components Of Sigmund Freud'S Psychoanalytic Theory Of Personality. The Id Is The Instinctual, Ego The Realistic, And Superego The Moralistic Part Of The Psyche. **274. Karen Horney**: A Psychoanalyst Known For Her Theory Of Neurotic Needs And Her Criticism Of Freud'S Views On Women. **275. Alfred Adler’S Inferiority Complex**: A Concept Where An Individual'S Feelings Of Inadequacy Lead To Overcompensation, Influencing Their Personality Development. **276. Albert Bandura’S Social Learning Theory**: Emphasizes The Importance Of Observing, Modelling, And Imitating The Behaviors, Attitudes, And Emotional Reactions Of Others. **277. Paul Costa & Robert Mccrae’S Big Five Theory**: Identifies Five Broad Dimensions Of Personality Traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, And Neuroticism. **278. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator**: A Personality Test That Categorizes People Into 16 Different Types Based On Four Dichotomies. **279. Hans Eysenck’S Trait Theory**: Focuses On Three Dimensions Of Personality: Extraversion-Introversion, Neuroticism-Stability, And Psychoticism. **280. Carl Jung**: Known For His Theories Of The Collective Unconscious And Archetypes, As Well As Introversion And Extraversion. **281. Collective Consciousness/Unconsciousness**: A Term Used By Carl Jung To Refer To Structures Of The Unconscious Mind Shared Among Beings Of The Same Species. **282. Archetypes**: Universal, Archaic Symbols And Images That Derive From The Collective Unconscious, As Described By Carl Jung. **283. Self-Actualization**: The Realization Or Fulfillment Of One'S Talents And Potentialities, Considered As A Drive Or Need Present In Everyone. **284. Humanistic Theories Of Personality**: Focus On The Importance Of Free Will And Individual Experience In The Development Of Personality. Prominent Theorists Include Abraham Maslow And Carl Rogers. **285. Collectivist Vs. Individualist Cultures**: Differentiates Societies Based On Whether They Prioritize The Group (Collectivist) Or The Individual (Individualist). **286. Projective Tests (Rorschach Vs. Thematic Apperception Test)**: Psychological Tests That Use Ambiguous Stimuli, Such As Inkblots Or Pictures, To Elicit Responses That Are Believed To Reveal The Respondent'S Unconscious Desires And Conflicts. **287. Defense Mechanisms**: Psychological Strategies Brought Into Play By Individuals Or The Unconscious Mind To Manipulate, Deny, Or Distort Reality In Order To Defend Against Feelings Of Anxiety And Unacceptable Impulses And To Maintain One'S Self-Schema. ### Clinical Psychology **288. Apa’S Diagnostic Statistical Manual (Dsm-5)**: The Standard Classification Of Mental Disorders Used By Mental Health Professionals In The U.S. **289. World Health Organization’S International Classification Of Diseases (Icd-10)**: Provides A System Of Diagnostic Codes For Classifying Diseases, Including Mental And Behavioral Disorders. **290. Chinese Classification Of Mental Disorders (Ccmd-3)**: The Official Diagnostic System For Mental Disorders In China, Similar To The Dsm And Icd But With Some Differences Relevant To Chinese Culture. **291. The Rosenhan Study**: An Experiment Conducted By David Rosenhan In 1973, Which Found Significant Weaknesses In Psychiatric Diagnosis. **292. Diagnostic Labels**: Terms Applied To Individuals Who Meet Specific Criteria For A Particular Mental Disorder. **293. Etiology**: The Study Of The Causation Or Origination Of Something, Often Used In The Context Of Diseases To Describe What Causes Them. **294. Neurodevelopmental Disorders**: A Group Of Conditions With Onset In The Developmental Period, Typically Early In Development, That Produce Impairments Of Personal, Social, Academic, Or Occupational Functioning. **295. Neurocognitive Disorders**: Previously Known As Dementia, These Disorders Involve Impairments In Cognitive Function Due To Abnormalities In The Brain. **296. Alzheimer’S Disease**: A Progressive Neurodegenerative Disease Characterized By Memory Loss, Cognitive Impairment, And Behavioral Changes. **297. Schizophrenia Spectrum**: A Range Of Disorders That Involves Symptoms Like Delusions, Hallucinations, Disorganized Thinking, Motor Dysfunction, And Negative Symptoms. **298. Dopamine Hypothesis**: Suggests That Abnormalities In The Dopamine Levels And Dopamine Receptors May Contribute To The Symptoms Of Schizophrenia. **299. Bipolar Disorder**: A Mental Disorder Marked By Extreme Mood Swings, Including Emotional Highs (Mania Or Hypomania) And Lows (Depression). **300. Major Depressive Disorder**: A Mental Health Disorder Characterized By Persistently Depressed Mood Or Loss Of Interest In Activities, Causing Significant Impairment In Daily Life. **301. Serotonin Hypothesis**: Suggests That Lower Than Normal Levels Of Serotonin, A Neurotransmitter, Might Contribute To Depression. **302. Generalized Anxiety Disorder**: Characterized By Excessive, Uncontrollable Worry About Everyday Issues. **303. Panic Disorder**: Involves Recurrent, Unexpected Panic Attacks And Worry About Having More Attacks. **304. Ptsd (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)**: A Disorder Characterized By Failure To Recover After Experiencing Or Witnessing A Terrifying Event. **305. Agoraphobia**: An Anxiety Disorder Characterized By An Intense Fear Of Places Or Situations From Which Escape Might Be Difficult. **306. Ocd (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)**: A Disorder Characterized By Unwanted, Recurring Thoughts And Behaviors That The Sufferer Feels Compelled To Repeat. **307. Dissociative Identity Disorder**: Formerly Known As Multiple Personality Disorder, This Is Characterized By The Presence Of Two Or More Distinct Personality States. **308. Somatization**: The Manifestation Of Psychological Distress By The Presentation Of Bodily Symptoms. **309. Aaron Beck**: Known For Developing Cognitive Therapy And His Work On The Cognitive Theory Of Depression. **310. Albert Ellis**: Developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Rebt), A Form Of Psychotherapy That Helps Individuals Identify Self-Defeating Thoughts And Feelings. **311. Rational-Emotive Therapy**: A Comprehensive, Active-Directive, Philosophically And Empirically Based Psychotherapy Which Focuses On Resolving Emotional And Behavioral Problems. **312. Psychoanalysis**: A Set Of Theories And Therapeutic Techniques Related To The Study Of The Unconscious Mind, Which Together Form A Method Of Treatment For Mental Disorders. **313. Free Association**: A Practice In Psychoanalytic Therapy Where The Patient Speaks Freely To Reveal The Unconscious Thoughts And Feelings. **314. Dream Analysis**: A Therapeutic Technique Best Known For Its Use In Psychoanalysis In Which Dream Content Is Examined As Symbolic Of Id Impulses And Intra-Psychic Conflicts. **315. Transference Vs. Countertransference**: Transference Is When A Patient Projects Feelings About Someone Else Onto The Therapist. Countertransference Is When A Therapist Projects Feelings Onto The Patient.

1. What are the three components of performance? Motivation, ability and opportunity What are the three components of motivation? 1. Directions of Effort a. What are you going to do right now? 2. Intensity of Effort a. How hard are you going to work on it? 3. Persistence of Effort a. How long are you going to work on it? What is the role of engagement? Engagement- Term commonly used in the contemporary workplace to summarize motivation levels. A contemporary synonym, more or less for high levels of intensity and persistence in work effort 2. What is the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivators? Extrinsic motivators (Outwardly)- motivation that is controlled by some contingency that depends on task performance Intrinsic motivators (Inwardly)- motivation that is felt when task performance serves as its own reward - Taken together, it represents an employees “total motivation level” Be familiar with examples of each. Extrinsic Motivators Examples- Good- Pay, Bonuses, promotions, benefits and perks, spot awards, praise, job security, support, free time Bad (lack of)- Disciplinary actions, demotions, terminations Intrinsic Motivators Examples- Good- Enjoyment, Interestingness, Acomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development, personal expression Bad (lack of)- Boredom, anxiety Frustration Why is money so important? Meaning of Money- the degree to which they view money as having symbolic, not just economic value - Achievement (money symbolizes success) - Respect (money brings respect in one’s community) - Freedom (money provides opportunity) 3. Be familiar with expectancy theory including the three main components, how those components can be influenced by organizations, how you can predict performance based on the theory. Expectancy Theory (Textbook Definition)- describes the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses. 1. Expectancy- represents that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task a. Technical Definition- expectancy is a subjective probability, ranging from 0 (no chance!) to 1 (a mortal lock!) that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level of performance b. Self Efficacy- as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success i. Past accomplishments ii. Vicarious Experience iii. Verbal Persuasion iv. Emotional Cues 2. Instrumentality- represents the belief that successful performance will result in some outcomes a. Technical Definition- a set of subjective probabilities, each ranging from 0 (no chance!) to 1 (a mortal lock!) that successful performance will bring a set of outcomes. 3. Valence- reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance. a. Positive Valence- I would prefer having outcome X to not having it i. Positive Valence- Salary increases, bonuses and informal rewards are typical examples b. Negative Valence- I would prefer not having outcome X to having it i. Negative Valence- disciplinary actions, demotions, and terminations c. Zero Valence- I’m bored are we still talking about outcome X o In general, outcomes are deemed more attractive when they help satisfy needs  Needs- cognitive grouping or clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences Expectancy Theory(Slides Definition)- Motivation is fostered when the employee believes three things: • That effort will result in performance. • That performance will result in outcomes. • That those outcomes will be valuable - Expectancy (Effort → Performance) o The belief that a high level of effort will lead to the successful performance of a task. o Expectancy can be shaped by:  Supportive Leadership  Access to Resources  Self-Efficacy - Instrumentality (Performance → Outcomes) o The belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes. o Can be hindered by:  Inadequate budget to provide outcomes, even when performance is high.  Poor methods of measuring performance.  Use of policies that reward things other than performance, such as attendance or seniority.  Time delays in rewarding good performance. - Valence o Anticipated value of outcomes. o Positive.  Prefer having the outcome (salary increases, bonuses).  Outcomes that satisfy needs are more positively valanced. o Negative.  Prefer not having the outcome (disciplinary action, termination). o Zero.  No interest in the outcome either way (bored with outcome). Motivational Force= E-P x (PO) x V 4. Be familiar with the three need theories we discussed in class (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Alderfer’s ERG theory, and McClelland’s Acquired Need theory). Maslow Hierarchy of Needs- Physiological, Safety and Security, Belongingness, Esteem, Self-Actualization Alderfer’s ERG Theory- Existence, Relatedness, Growth McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory- Achievement, Power, Affiliation 5. What makes a goal an effective one? A goal is an effective one when it is specific and difficult Which of the main components of motivation is the focus of goal setting? - Specific - Measurable - Achievable - Result Based - Time Sensitive 6. What is the role of goal difficulty, feedback, task complexity, and goal commitment in the effectiveness of goal setting? - Feedback- consist of updates on employee progress toward goal attainment - Task Complexity- reflects how complicated the information and actions involved in a task are, as well as how much the task changes - Goal Commitment- the degree to which a person accepts a goal and is determined to try to reach it What influences goal commitment? - Rewards- Tie goal achievement to the receipt of monetary or nonmonetary rewards - Publicity- Publicize the goal to significant others and coworkers to create some social pressure to attain it - Support- Provide supportive supervision to aid employees if they struggle to attain the goal - Participation- collaborate on setting the specific proficiency level and due date for a goal so that the employee feels a sense of ownership over the goal - Resources- Provide the resources needed to attain the goal and remove any constraints that could hold back task efforts 7. What is the primary focus of equity theory? How is it determined? Motivation is maximized when an employees ratio of “outcomes” to “inputs” matches those of some “comparison other” Thus motivation also depends on the outcomes received by other employees 7. What are the various comparisons that people could make? Comparison Others - Job Equity- Compare yourself to others doing the same job in the same company, with similar levels of education, seniority, and performance - Company Equity- Compare yourself to others in the same company but in different jobs, with similar levels of responsibility and working conditions - Occupational Equity- Compare yourself to others doing the same job in other companies, with similar levels of education, seniority, and performance - Educational Equity- Compare yourself to others who have attained the same education level - Age Equity- compare yourself to others of the same age What are the different personality types in relation to equity theory? - Sensitives - Entitleds - Benevolents 8. What are the reactions to inequity and how do they differ in relation to positive and negative inequity? - Alter outcomes - Alter inputs - Alter comparison others inputs - Change the comparison other - Rationalization - Leave the situation 10. What is psychological empowerment and what four beliefs make it up? Psychological empowerment- an intrinsic form of motivation derived from the belief that ones work tasks are contributing to some larger purpose Fostered by 4 beliefs: Meaningfulness- captures the value of a work goal or purpose, relative to a persons own ideals and passions Self-determination- reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks Competence- captures a persons belief in their capability to perform work tasks successfully Impact- reflects the sense that a persons actions “make a difference”—that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose 11. How does motivation relate to job performance and organizational commitment? - Motivation has a strong positive effect on Job Performance (around .5 magnitude) - Motivation has a moderate effect on Organizational Commitment (around .1 magnitude) 12. What are the various ways that organizations apply motivational concepts in compensation systems? Individual Focused - Piece-Rate- a specific rate is aid for each unit produced, each unit sold, or each service provided - Merit Pay- An increase to base salary is made in accordance with performance evaluation ratings - Lump-sum bonuses- A bonus is received for meeting individual goals but no change is made to base salary. - Recognition awards- Tangible awards (gift cards, trips, special events) or intangible awards (praise) are given on an impromptu basis to recognize achievement Unit Focused - Gainsharing- A bonus is received for meeting unit goals (department goals, plant goals, business unit goals) for criteria controllable by employees (labor costs, use of materials, quality) Organizational-Focused - Profit Sharing- A bonus is received when the publicly reported earnings of a company exceed some minimum level, with the magnitude of the bonus contingent on the magnitude of the profits Be familiar with how each relates to creating a clear goal and connecting the individual’s performance to outcomes. - Profit Sharing- unlikely to have strong motivational consequences because individual employees can do little to improve the profitability of the company, regardless of their job performance - Instrumentality and equity are more achievable with gainsharing because the relevant unit is smaller the relevant outcomes are mor controllable - The highest instrumentality and equity levels will typically be achieved though piece rate plans or merit pay plane o Merit is by far the most common - Merit Pay and Profit sharing offer little in the way of difficult and specific goals because bother essentially challenge employees to make next year as goof (or better) than this year - Lump-sum and gainsharing provide a forum for assigning difficult and specific goals; the former does so at the individual level and the latter at the unit level

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