Lecture 2: introduction, acquiring knowledge and the scientific method

why should we study research methods? (3)

• to be able to conduct research and evaluate the work of others

• to evaluate false claims

• to develop a systematic way of asking questions and determine if the findings support the conclusion

how does science differ from pseudoscience? (4)

• sciences have refutable hypothesis, but pseudosciences emphasize on negative results because they sell

• sciences have objective and unbiased evaluations while pseudosciences ignore what doesn’t support their hypothesis

• sciences want to improve their theories while pseudosciences ignore the change

• sciences are based on past findings while pseudosciences only ignores it

the scientific method keeps track of both […]

hits and misses

what are the non-scientific approaches that we used to use? (5)

• method of tenacity: from habit or superstition

• method of intuition: from hunch or gut feeling

• method of authority: from an expert

• rational method: from reasoning, a logical conclusion

• method of empiricism: from direct sensory observation

explain the method of tenacity

information is accepted as true because it has always be believed or because superstition supports it

what are the problems with the method of tenacity? (2)

• information acquired might not be accurate

• no way to correct the false idea, even if you have the evidence (hard to change beliefs)

explain the method of intuition

information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or gut feeling

what’s the problem with the method of intuition?

we have no way to separate the accurate from the inaccurate knowledge

explain the method of authority

a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area

what are the problems with the method of authority? (5)

• information can be inaccurate

• answers obtained could represent subjective or personal opinion

• we assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics

• method of faith: you accept without questioning

• not all experts are true experts

define “method of faith”

believing an expert’s statement without questions, part of the problems of the method of authority

explain the rational method

we seek answers by the use of logical reasoning

how does logical reasoning work?

• you have

  • premises statements: describe facts or assumptions presumed to be true

  • argument: set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion

• you see if the argument is logical

what are the problems with the rational method? (2)

• conclusion isn’t true unless both presmises statements are true, even if the argument is logical

• people aren’t good at logical reasoning: they tend to believe that a conclusion is true because the link between the falsies premises is logical

explain the method empiricism

use observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge

what’s the problem with the method of empiricism?

we can’t believe everything we see, hear or feel as misinterpretation is common

what’s the goal of the scientific method?

to minimize the errors scientists make

true or false: a scientist could use different methods simultaneously to answer a hypothesis

true: you could measure the behavioural response and the brain scans, which would minimize the errors

true or false: knowledge stays the same over time

false: it is constantly evolving

why can we never say that we have “proven” something?

because evidence is probabilistic, not all-or-none. you can’t say for sure that something is true or false

what’s the strength and vulnerability of the scientific method?

the fact that we never have a definitive answer: our evidence is probabilistic

define “cause and effect relationships”

associations between events

what are the steps of the scientific method? (5)

1. observe behaviour and develop a theory

2. form a hypothesis

3. use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction (something you can measure)

4. make systematic, planned observations to evaluate prediction

5. use the observations to support, refute or adjust the original hypothesis

define “inductive reasoning”

make a generalization based on a few observations

during the first step of the scientific method, you observe to form a hypothesis. you are using [deductive/inductive] reasoning because […]

inductive because you can’t observe all the cases in the world

how do you arrive at an explanation about the cause-and-effect relationship between variables?

by observing events

what are the goal of a theory? (3)

• organize our observations and ideas

• explain our observations

• predict events that are not yet observed

true or false: our sources of information (news, journal) can be biased

true: they aren’t always representative of the world

why do you do a literature review?

to make sure that your question hasn’t already been answered

what are the conditions for a good scientific theory? (3)

• parsimony: explain a lot with a few concepts

• precision: we can all agree on its predictions

• testability: you can try to prove it false

define “parsimony”

theories are more powerful when they explain many results with few concepts

define “precision”

there are no other ways to interpret that theory, we all agree on the prediction

define “testability”

a theory must make predictions that can be tested empirically and that you could prove wrong

define “hypothesis”

• proposed relationship between variables

• tentative answer to your question that must be tested and evaluated

define “variable”

any characteristic that can change or take different values

what’s the difference between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV)?

• IV: variable that is manipulated, that we think is the cause

• DV: variable that we measure

a hypothesis must be […]

testable and falsifiable

what do we mean by “falsifiable hypothesis”

hypothesis can be tested and proven wrong

true or false: your hypothesis needs to be written in a way that is not refutable

false

in [experimental/non-experimental] research, we cannot imply causality between the IV and DV

non-experimental

what’s the difference between an experimental and a non-experimental method?

• experimental: we assume the causality between the IV and the DV

• non-experimental: there may be another variable causing change on both variables that aren’t necessarily the IV and the DV

the third step of the scientific method is to use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction. what do you do during that step?

state the expected relationship between the variables in that situation

how do you use the rational (logical) method?

you make a prediction for a specific situation based on a general hypothesis

define “deductive reasoning”

you use a general hypothesis to make a prediction about a specific situation

what’s the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

• deductive: drawing specific conclusions from general principles (general → specific)

  • ex: all mammals have kings, a whale is a mammal, a whale has lungs

• inductive: drawing general conclusions from specific observation (specific → general)

  • ex: all the swans i ever saw are white, all saws are whiten

what are the requirements of a good hypothesis? (3)

• logical: developed from results of previous research

• testable: we can observe and measure all the variables involved

• refutable: we can fear results contrary to the hypothesis

the fourth step of the scientific method is to make systematic, planned observations to evaluate prediction. what do you do during that step?

• collect and analyze the data

• provide a fair and unbiased empirical test

the fifth step of the scientific method is to evaluate the research hypothesis. what do you do during that step?

based on statistics, the hypothesis will be supported, refuted or adjusted

why do we say that the scientific method is a cycle?

because it’s a continuous process of testing, correcting based on how data fits the prediction

what are the principles of the scientific method? (3)

• empirical: observations are performed under certain conditions

• public: methods and data must be available to others so that they can replicate it

• objective: observations and conclusions are free of biases

define the “empirical” principle of the scientific method

observations are systematic, performed under specified conditions so that we can accurately answer a research question

define the “public” principle of the scientific method

methods and data are available to others so they could replicate the experiment

define the “objective” principle of the scientific method

observations and conclusions are free of bias and personal opinions

define “basic research”

understand a type of behaviour in a generalized set

define “applied research”

address a particular problem in a certain context

what’s the difference between basic and applied research?

• basic: understand something in general

• applied: want to solve a problem in a certain context

what is included in an APA article? (6)

1. abstract: summary

2. introduction: goal, theories, hypothesis

3. method: study design

4. results: data analysis, stats

5. discussion: interpretation

6. additional sections: references, figures, tables

what are the elements of APA writing style? (4)

• impersonal: no “i” or “we”

• concise: no words with double meaning

• verbs in past tense

• citation APA format

true or false: you include all the papers in your reference, even those that don’t contribute to your argument

false: you only include those that are relevant

true or false: we prefer to use direct quotes in APA

false: it’s better to paraphrase in your own words

what does an abstract of an APA article include? (5)

• research question

• participants

• research methods and procedures

• report of the results

• conclusion or implications

(briefly)

what does the introduction of an APA article include? (4)

• introduction to the topic of the paper

• review of relevant literature

• statements of the problem or hypothesis with relevant variables defined

• research strategy

what does the methods section of an APA article include? (4)

• participants

• stimulus materials and equipment

• design

• procedure

what does the results section of an APA article include?

description of the data and statistical analyses without discussion

what’s the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

• descriptive: summarize the sample or population (mean, standard deviation)

• inferential: draw conclusion of the population based on the sample

what does the discussion section of an APA article include? (3)

• restatement of the hypothesis

• summarize the findings

• discussion of the interpretation and implications

true or false: if an author was mentioned in the paper, they should be listed in the references. however, an author listed in the references doesn’t necessarily appear in the paper

false: it’s a 1-to-1 match: if you’re in the paper then you should be in the references (and vice-versa)

true or false: tables and figures should contain more information than the text

true

what happens during the peer reviewing process?

• we submit the articles to 2-3 reviewers

• process can take a few months and one year before getting published

define “qualitative research”

measure variables for participants to obtains scores (usually numerical values) which go through statistical analysis for summer and interpretation

define “qualitative research”

making observations that are summarized and interpreted in narrative reports

what’s the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?

quantitative:

• measuring variables of participants to obtains scores

• spastically analysis for summary and interpretation

qualitative

• making observations

• summarized and interpreted in a narrative report

the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research isn’t number VS no numbers. what it is?

a quantitative research might get words as answers, but the measurements will get converted into numbers

• ex: education (college degree, yes/no) and political orientation (conservative/liberal)

  • these variables are both qualitative, but will get changed into percentage when we will compare conservative graduates and liberal graduates

where research topics usually come from? (5)

• personal interest and curiosity

• casual observation

• report of others’s observations

• particular problem or questions

• behavioural theory

define “primary source”

first hand report of of observations or research results written by someone who conducted the research

define “secondary source”

summary of another person’s work, they didn’t participate in the research

what’s the difference between primary and secondary source?

• primary: written by the person who conducted the research and made the observations

• secondary: summary of another person’s work, didn’t conduct the research

true or false: secondary sources are always good sources

false: not always, they can be incomplete or biased