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nature–nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
Charles Darwin
an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist who proposed the evolutionary process of natural selection, believing that it shapes bodies as well as behaviors
natural selection
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us.
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
genes
the biochemical units of heredity.
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism.
identical (monozygotic) twins
individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment.
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
epigenetics
“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).
nervous system
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.
dendrites
a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.
axon
the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.
glial cells (glia)
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
refractory period
in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
all-or-none response
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.
endorphins
“morphine within” — natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.
endocrine system
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.
substance use disorder
a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption.
depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.
addiction
an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. (See also substance use disorder.)
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
opioids
opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
hallucinogens
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.