introduction to translation

Product-Oriented Descriptive Translation Study

Product-Oriented Descriptive Translation Study

analyses the translated text itself

Function-Oriented Descriptive Translation Study

analyses communicative needs and functions of translation in different contexts

Process-Oriented Descriptive Translation Study

analyses how translators approach translation tasks

Medium-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on how different mediums affect the process of translation

Area-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on the influence of cultural and geographical regions on the translation process

Rank-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on differences in social status, hierarchy and formality between languages

Test-type-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on specific features of different types of texts in translation

Time-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on specific features of the language in different time periods

Problem-restricted Theory of Translation

focuses on the subject of the translation

S-Universal

cultural or linguistic element in the source text that cannot be translated

T-Universal

linguistic or cultural element that can easily be translated

Metatext

term that was used in the 20th century. Text that refers to or analyses another text

Structuralism

understanding the meaning of things by their structure

Transformational-Generative Grammar (Noam Chomsky)

considers grammar to be a system of rules that generate exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined operations (called transformations) to produce new sentences from existing ones.

Systemic Functional Grammar (Michael A Halliday)

linguistic framework that views language as a system for expressing meaning in context. Phonological, Graphological, Grammatical, Lexical 

Formal Equivalence (Eugene Nida)

Formal Correspondence

Dynamic Equivalence (Eugene Nida)

Functional Equivalence

Formal Equivalence Level (Werner Koller)

SL and TL words have similar orthographic or phonological features

Referential or Denotative Equivalence Level (Werner Koller)

SL and TL words refer to the same thing in the real world

Connotative Equivalence Level (Werner Koller)

SL and TL words trigger the same or similar associations in the minds of speakers of the two languages

Text-Normative Equivalence Level (Werner Koller)

SL and TL words being used in the same or similar contexts in their respective languages

Pragmatic or Dynamic Equivalence Level (Werner Koller)

SL and TL words have the same effect on their respective readers

Norm

linguistic, stylistic, and aesthetic standard practices regarding texts 

Connotation

additional, or secondary, meaning associated with a linguistic sign

Indirect translation

translation of a translation

Direct translation

translation of a text done by translating each word separately

Domain

 an area of professional activity in which one particular language variety or combination of varieties is regularly used

Markedness

one term and/or concept is highlighted as (markedly) different from another

Discourse analysis

aims to understand how language operates in real-life situations and how it reflects and constructs social realities

Register

set of features distinguishing one stretch of language from another in terms of formal variation to do with the language ‘user’ and/or with language ‘use’

Evaluativeness

analyses the way language is used to express attitudes, judgments, and evaluations about people, events, or situations

Communicative Clues

prompts or signals that people use to indicate their intent to another person

Genre

mode of using language conventionally and in a manner appropriate given communicative occasions and to the goals of the participants in them. Helps to determine other elements in the systemic framework.

Defamiliarizing

manipulating grammar, syntax, and word choice, to create a sense of disorientation and surprise, forcing readers to slow down, pay closer attention, and engage more deeply with the text

Intertexuality

shaping of a text's meaning by another text, either through deliberate compositional strategies

Level Shift (John C Catford)

occurs when an SL item has a TL translation equivalent at a different linguistic level from its own

Category shift (John C. Catford)

generic term referring to shifts involving any of the four categories of class, structure and unit

Class shift (John C. Catford)

changing the grammatical class

Structure shift (John C. Catford)

grammatical structural change

Intra-system shift (John C. Catford)

when TL has a non corresponding term, regardless of whether it has a corresponding system

Locutionary Speech Act

basic act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression (assertion)

Illocutionary Speech Act

linguistic expression with some function in mind (promise, order, …)

Perlocutionary Speech Act

the intended effect of a speech act

Literal translation (Cicero)

Adherses closely to the surface structures of the SL message in terms of semantics and syntax

Free translation (Cicero)

Attempts to recreate a text that sounds natural in TL and therefore drifts away from SL elements and structures.

Word-for-word translation (St. Jerome)

SL word is replaced by the closest TL correspondent

Sense-for-sense (St. Jerome)

Attempts to translate the meaning of the word within context and within target language requirements.

metaphrase (John Dryden)

word-for-translation, literal translation

paraphrase (John Dryden)

author’s words are not strictly followed as his sense and which this more or less corresponds to faithful or sense for sense translation

imitation (John Dryden)

a free adaptation

alienating (Friedrich Schleiermacher)

the value of the foreign is emphasised by bending TL word-usage to try to ensure faithfulness to the SL

Naturalizing (Friederich Schleiermacher)

Foreign text is brought in line with typical patterns of the TL

Direct translation (Vinay and Darbelnet)

two languages show close correspondence in terms of lexis and structure

Oblique translation (Vinay and Darbelnet)

restructuring is involved

Intralingual translation (Roman Jakobson)

an interpretation of verbal signs by other signs in the same language

Interlingual translation (Roman Jakobson)

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language

Intersemiotic translation (Roman Jackobson)

interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non verbal signs systems

Linguistic meaning (Eugene Nida)

the relationship between two words

referentiel or denotatice meaning (Eugene Nida)

the dictionary meaning of the word

connotative or emotive meaning (Eugene Nida)

the associations the word may have

Formal correspondence (John C. Catford)

any TL category, which can also be said to occupy as nearly as possible the same place in the economy of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL

Textual equivalent (John C. Catford)

any TL text or portion of text which is observed to be equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text

Descriptive translation branch (James S. Holmes)

Deals with description of what happens in translation and is known as Descriptive Translation Studies.

Theoretical translation branch (James S. Holmes)

deals with the establishment of general principles to explain and predict translation phenomena

Applied translation branch (James S. Holmes)

translation training, tools and criticism

Hermeneutics (George Steiner)

Used to refer to theory, mythology and process involved in interpreting all types of text with the aim of discovering its meaning

Hermeneutic motion (George Steiner)

A motion to recover SL meaning and transfer it to the TT

Translation quality assessment (Juliane House)

Assessment of the quality of translation, highlighting errors.

Overt translation (Juliane House)

The translation status of the TT is clear

Covert translation (Juliane House)

Everything that reminds the target audience of the origin and discourse environment of the SL passes through a cultural filter.

Field (Michael A.K. Halliday)

what is being written about

Tenor (Michael A.K. Halliday)

who is communicating and to whom

Mode (Michael A.K. Halliday)

the form of communication

Polysystem theory (Itamar Even-Zohar)

Study of translation within the cultural and literary systems in which it functions

Skopos theory (Hans J. Vermeer)

Allows the possibility that the same text may be translated in different ways according to the purpose of the TT

Norms of translation (Gideon Toury)

regularities of the translation behaviour as determined by observation of translation products and processes and identification of tendencies.

Initial norm of translation (Gideon Toury)

concerning the translator’s orientation toward the norms of the SL and the norms of the TT

Preliminary norm of translation (Gideon Toury)

relating to translation process, such as translation policy and directness of translation

Operational norm of translation (Gideon Toury)

Matricial and text-linguistic norms

Semantic equivalence (Peter Newmark)

attempts to recreate, as far as possible, the contextual meaning of a ST in a TT within the syntactic and semantic limitations of the TT

Communicative translation (Peter Newmark)

Aims to recreate, as far as possible, the same effect the TT receptor as the ST has on the ST audience.

Negative analytic (Antoine Berman)

system of textual deformation that conceals or eliminates foreignness in translation

Positive analytic (Antoine Berman)

allows translators to bring the sense of the foreign into the TT through a creative process of literal translation.

Translatorial Action (Justa Holz Manttari)

views translation as a purpose-driven, outcome oriented human interaction involving intercultural transfer.

Abusive fidelity (Philip Lewis)

deconstruction to denote a radical and risk-taking approach to literary translation

Deconstruction (Jacques Derrida)

challenges capacity to define, capture or stabilise meaning, thus undermines the concept of equivalence of meaning in translation

Functionality plus loyalty principle (Christiane Nord)

There needs to be a relationship between the SL and the TT. purpose must be compatible with author’s intention, loyalty to this intention restricts the possible interpretations made by the translator

documentary translation (Christiane Nord)

a document of a source culture communication. Receivers know that the text is translation.

instrumental translation (Christiane Nord)

the TT receivers read the TT as though it were a ST written in their own language

Translation of rewriting (Andre Lefevere)

The power factors that govern the transformation of literary texts in translation and their reception, acceptance, or rejection.

Translator’s invisibility (Lawrence Venuti)

Translators are ‘invisible’ because of fluent translation practices, which produce an illusion of transparency.

Domestication (Lawrence Venuti)

fluent translation practice, which minimises the foreignness of the text and leads to the translator’s invisibility

Foreignization (Lawrence Venuti)

aims to make the receiving culture aware of the linguistic and cultural difference inherent in the foreign text

Textual equivalence (Mona Baker)

Translator should be aware of the relative markedness (prominence or unusualness) of the structures which can help understand the choices made by speakers and writers when conveying a message

Pragmatic equivalence (Mona Baker)

the study of language and meaning in communicative situations

Cohesion (Mona Baker)

refers to the grammatical and lexical links which help a text hold together

Consilience (Andrew Chesterman)

Various trends of translation study research, which aim to overcome the linguistics-cultural studies divide.