AP Psych Final Review for AP Exam! [for the updated 2025 exam] (copy)

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

The Scientific Attitude

A mindset that promotes the use of critical thinking, characterized by curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Structuralism

The first school of psychology that focused on introspection.

Introspection

Recognizing one's own psychological processes, perceptions, and judgments.

Functionalism

An early school of thought promoted by William James, exploring how mental and behavioral processes function to enable adaptation and survival.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, examining assumptions and evaluating evidence.

Empirical Approach

The idea that knowledge comes from experience, primarily through observation and experimentation.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

Hindsight Bias

The belief that one could have foreseen an outcome after it has already occurred.

Overconfidence

A phenomenon where individuals believe they know more than they actually do.

Cultural Norms

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, usually formulated as an if/then statement.

Null-Hypothesis

The hypothesis that proposes no connection between variables.

Probability Value (P-value)

Calculated by the size of the sample and standard deviation, indicating the likelihood of the null hypothesis being correct.

Falsifiable

A hypothesis is falsifiable if it can be proven wrong through study.

Experiment

A study that manipulates one variable under controlled conditions to observe the effects on a second variable.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that may change due to manipulation of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

A variable that may influence the dependent variable and skew results.

Operational Definition

Explains how variables are measured in a study.

Replication

The process of reproducing a study to ascertain the reliability of results.

Population

The group that a study aims to understand.

Random Sampling

A method where every participant in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants based on their availability.

Representative Sampling

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population.

Generalizability

The extent to which results can be applied to the whole population.

Sampling Bias

When a sample is not representative of the population.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the special treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group that does not experience any special treatment.

Placebo Group

A control group that receives an identical substance to the experimental group but with no effect.

Random Assignment

The practice of assigning participants to different conditions in an experiment to ensure equal chance of being placed in each group.

Placebo Effect

Changes in participants' experiences due to their expectations about the treatment they receive.

Social Desirability Bias

When participants respond in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others.

Experimenter Bias

When researchers’ expectations can affect the results of their studies.

Single-Blind Study

Participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Study

Both participants and researchers are unaware of who has received the treatment or placebo.

Quantitative Research

Research that provides measurable data to understand human behavior.

Qualitative Research

Research that yields non-measurable data to provide depth and context.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of an individual or group to reveal broader truths.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors.

Self-Report Bias

When participants provide inaccurate answers due to various factors.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that synthesizes results from multiple studies on a topic.

Directionality Problem

When it is unclear which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

Third Variable Problem

When an unmeasured variable influences both correlated variables.

Statistics

The science of collecting and analyzing numerical data.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data that describes characteristics of groups.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numerical data.

Median

The middle score in a ranked distribution.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores lower than a specific score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two distinct peaks.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to fall closer to the average upon re-measurement.

Correlation

Shows a connection between variables and helps in prediction.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from -1 to +1 indicating the strength of a correlation.

Scatterplot

A graph that displays values of two variables as a collection of dots.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting the frequency distribution of data.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship that does not exist.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical data that allows generalizations about a population from a sample.

Statistical Significance

A measure of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Biological Psychology

The study of links between biological and psychological processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach incorporating biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis.

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to change and adapt in response to experience.