US Politics- Electoral Process and Direct Democracy

3 informal requirements to become a Presidential candidate/ Member of Congress?

• Political Experience

• Funds

• Media Profile

Evidence of ‘Political Experience’ as an informal requirement to become a presidential candidate/ member of Congress?

Joe Biden (2020)- He was a former vice president for 8 years, he also served as a Senator for 36 years

Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (2018)- She was in no prior elected office, but she was able to win a house seat at 29, which shows that extensive experience is not essential for Congress

Evidence of ‘Funds’ as an informal requirement to become a presidential candidate/member of Congress?

Trump (2020)- Trump spent roughly around $700 million

Iihan Omar (2018)- Spent about $1 million, showing how funding is not really that important for members of Congress

Evidence of ‘Media Profile’ as an informal requirement to become a presidential candidate/member of Congress?

Trump (2016)- Had a huge media profile due to decades as a TV celebrity, (Host of ‘The Apprentice)

Jason Lewis (2017)- Had name recognition and a media platfotm before enetering Congress, he was a a conservative radio talk-show host and political commentator.

What is a primary?

A primary is an election within a party to choose the party’s candidate for the general election

What is a caucus?

A caucus is a local meeting of party members where they discuss and vote for their preferred candidates for the party’s nomination, rather than voting in a secret ballot like a primary

What is meant by invisible primary?

The invisible primary is the period before the first primaries or caucuses, where potential presidential candidates try to gain support from party elites, raise money and increase their media profile to show that they are an appropriate and viable candidate.

3 factors that impact on the success of a presidential candidate in the invisible primary

• Endorsements

• Money and Fundraising ability

• Name Recognition

Evidence of ‘Endorsements’ as an impact on the success of a presidential candidate in the invisible primary?

Endorsements refer to support from influential figures within the party

Joe Biden (2020)- He secured early endorsements from Democratic elitles like Senator Dick Durbin and former President Obama, which strengthend his position before the first primarires

This signals legitimacy, builds donor confidence and increases campaign momentum

Evidence of ‘Money and Fundraising Ability’ as an impact on the sucess of a presidential candidate in the invisible primary?

Michael Bloomberg (2020)- Spent hundreds of millions before primaries to boost his visibilty and viability.

This demonstrates viabilty and allows candidate to compete nationally.

Evidence of ‘Name Recognition’ as an impact on the success of a presidential candidate in the invisible primary?

Trump (2016)- He leveraged his celebrity status from The Apprentice to dominate media coverage and gain momnetum despite little political experience

Give an example of a primary?

New Hampshire, it is the 2nd (as of 2024 after South Carolina) primary in the presidential nomination process. It helps candidates gain early momentum and media attention. Bernie Sanders narrowly won it with 25.6% in 2020

Give an example of a caucus?

Iowa Democratic Caucus, it is the 1st caucus in the nomination process, where party members publicy show support. It can make or break early campaigns due to media attention. Pete Buttigieg gained national attention after performing strongly in Iowa 2020

3 factors that might affect the outcome of the primary system in the US?

• Money and Fundraising

• Name Recogntion

• Campaign Stratergy

Evidence of how ‘money and fundraising’ can be a factor that might affect the outcome of the primary system?

Michael Bloomberg (2020)- Spent heavily on primaries like Nevada and South Carolina, though he still struggled to win votes

Candidates with more money can run larger campaigns in key states, reach more voters, and increasing their chance of winning primaries and caucuses

Evidence of how ‘name recognition’ can be a factor that might affect the outcome of the primary system?

Trump (2016)- Trump has a national celebrity status from constant media coverage in past times. He won the New Hampshire Primary by a large margin, even though he was relatively new to politics.

Shows how a high media profile and name recognition can help a candidate perform strongly in early primaries

Evidence of how ‘campaign stratergy’ can be a factor that might affect the outcome of the primary system?

Pete Buttigieg (2020)- He performed well in the Iowa caucus because his tram organised local volunteers to maximise supporter turnout, even though he was less well-known nationally.

3 criticisms of the primary system in the US?

• Process tends to be more candiate-focused rather than policy focused

• Turnout in caucuses tends to be particularly low

• States later in the timetable play a minimal role in influencing the outcome

Evidence of ‘process tends to be more candidate-focused rather than policy focused’ as a criticism of the primary system in the US?

Trump (2016)- In Republican primaries, Trump dominated media coverage through his personal profile as a celebrity businessman, use of social media and populist rhetoric, despite having limited policy detail and little support from the Republican Party

Evidence of ‘turnout tends to be low in cauceses’ as a criticism of the US primary system

Iowa (2024)- Only 15% of those who were eligible to vote in the Iowa caucuses.

Evidence of ‘states later in the timetable play a minimal role in influecning outcome’ as a criticism of the US primary system?

Biden (2020)- Following Biden’s decisive victory on Super Tuesday, several candiates including Pete Buttigieg, Michael Bloomberg etc dropped out before many later states such as New York, Pennsylvania and New Jeresey voted

What is Super Tuesday?

Super Tuesday is the day during primary season when a large number of states hold their primaries or caucuses simulatanoeusly, making it a decisive moment in determining each party’s presidential nominee. It usually takes place usually around March

3 postives of the primary system in the US?

• They allow ordinary voters to get involved and choose their party candidate

• It road-tests candidates to see if they are fit for office

• Encourages detailed policy debate

Example of ‘they allow ordinary voters to get involved and choose their party candidate’ as a positive of the primary system in the US?

In 2016, 61 million Americans got involved in the nomination process

Example of how ‘it road-tests candidates to see if they are fit for office’ as a postive of the primary system in the US

Paul Tsongas (1992)- He had just recovered for cancer, whilst many people admired his resilence, they worried about his physical capability for the job

Example how it ‘encourages detailed policy debate’ as a positive of the US primary system?

Democratic Primary (2008)- Obama and Hilary faced repeated scrutiny on healthcare form and on foreign policy in early primaries such New Hampshire. Questions regarding such matters forced them both to clarify their policy in detail for voters

What is an open primary?

An open primary is one in which any registered voter can vote regardless of their party affiliation

E.g Michigan use this system

What is a closed primary?

A primary in which only registered members of a political party can vote in that party’s primary.

E.g New York use this system

What is a semi-closed primary?

A semi-closed primary is when registered party members must vote in their own party, but independent or unaffiliated voters can choose which party’s primary to vote in

E.g Maryland uses semi-closed primaries

What is a national nominating convention?

A national nominating convention is a formal coronation of where a policital party officially selects its presidential candidate

3 functions of a national nominating convention

• Officially nominate the presidential and candidate

• Setting the party platform

• Unite the party

Example of ‘officially nominating the presidential candidate’ as a function of a national nominating convention

Trump (2016)- He was formally nominated with 1237 delegates at the Republican convention

Example of ‘setting the party platform’ as function of a national nominating convention

Democratic Convention (2008)- This platform included healthcare reform, education, and climate change initiatives

Example of ‘uniting the party’ as a function of a national nominating convention?

Republican Convention (2016)- There was emphasised party unity behind Trump after a divisive primary system.

However this is insignificant as unity isn’t always achieved, e.g Never Trump Republicans in 2016

Give one reason why the electoral college was formed the way it was?

One reason may be to balance the infleunce of large and smaller states in choosing the president, so that smaller states would still have a meaninful say instead of being dominated by the most populous states.

What is the electoral college?

The system used in the US to elect the president and vice president. Most states use a winner-takes-all system, so the candidate with the most votes in a state gets all its electoral votes. A candiate needs 270 out of 538 to win the Presidency

3 criticisms of the electoral college?

• Overrepresenation of smaller states

• Candidates can win by securing large states

• It distorts election results

Example of how ‘overrepresentation of smaller states’ as a criticism of the electoral college

California has 1 electoral college vote per 712,000 people, in comparison to Wyoming which has 1 electoral college vote per 195,000. This can be argued to have created inequalities in representation across the country

Example of how ‘candidates can win by securing large states’ as a critcism of the electoral college

It is possible for a person to win 11 out of the 12 largest states with the most electoral college votes (e.g Califorina with 54, Texas with 40, and Florida with 30) and that person can go and win the Presidency without a single vote from any other state.This undermines the principle of equal representation

Example of how ‘it distorts elections results’ as a criticism of the electoral college

Trump (2016)- Trump won the Electoral College (306-232) despite losing the popular vote by nearly 3 million votes to Hillary Clinton

4 alternative systems to the electoral college?

• Direct Popular Vote

• Congressional District System

• Ranked Choice Voting

• Proportional Popular Vote

What is the direct popular vote, and give me evidence of why it would be good?

The President would be elected by a nationwide popular vote, with the candidate receiving the most votes winning.

Trump (2016)- Clinton won nearly 3 million more votes that Trump, but still lost the Presidency due to the Electoral College. Supports agrument that a national popular vote would have produced a result that better reflected voter preference.

What is the Congressional District System, and give me evidence of why it would be good?

Congressional District Method- Instead of using winner-takes all statewide, electoral votes are awarded by Congressional District. Each congressional district awards 1 electoral college to the candidates, the remaining 2 electoral votes (representing the state’s Senate Seats) are awarded to the statewide popular vote winner.

This system is used in Nebraska and it reduces the number of watsed votes, and allows minority party voters to still gain representation, and it also makes election results more reflective of regional voting patterns

Nebraska (2020)- Trump won 2 districts, Biden won 1 district, Trump won the statewide vote so had 2 votes added onto his. So Trump won Nebraska 4:1 in terms of electoral college votes

However this system has never actually impacted an election

What is ranked choice voting, and give evidence of why it would be good?

Ranked Choice voting is when voters rank candidates in order of preference, if no candidate gets a majority of first-choice votes, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Voters of the eliminated candidate are redistributed the voters next choice, and the process continues until one candidate has a majority.

This system hasn’t been used used in a presidential election before

What is the proportional popular vote, and give evidence of why it would be good?

Under this system, a state’s electoral votes are divided according to the share of the popular vote each candidate receives. E.g if a state has 10 electoral votes and someone wins 60% of the vote they win 6 votes, while the other candidate with 40% of the vote will win 4 votes

System has never been used in a US Presidential election

Give me recency factors which affect electoral outccomes in the US?

• Incumbency

• Leadership

• Issues

• Media

• Money

What is incumbency, and give evidence to support it having a significant impact?

Incumbency is when you hold office already, before the election

Obama (2012)- He benefitted from high public visibilty and a strong campaign network, such as having a highly organised grassroots campaign known as Obama for America. All of this helped him win a 2nd term despite a slow economic recovery from the US after the financial crash

Also 33 re-election attempts from US Presidents and 22 have been a success

Give an example of incumbency not being a significant factor

Trump (2020)- Despite being an incumbent, things such as his handling of the covid crisis, economic downturn (high unemployment by 2020), outweighed the benefits of being an incumbent

Overall judgement for incumbency?

Overall, incumbency is quite significant. More presidents who seek re-election win due to name recognition, established resources, and the ability to appear presidential. But poor economic performance or even scandals can outweigh these advantages

What is leadership, and give evidence supporting that it is a significant factor?

Leadership refers to the personal qualities, competenece and public perception of a candidate.

‘Crooked Hilary’ (2016)- Clinton used a private email server while Secretary of State (2009-2013), critics claimed this risked exposing sensitive info, FBI even lauched an investigation into her. This led Trump repeatedly referring to her as ‘Crooked Hilary’, suggesting dishonesty and wrongdoing. This exacerbated her public image by destroying her trustworthiness, leading to her defeat

Trump (2024)- When he got shot, used this well saying things such as ‘God spared his life for a reason… we are going to fulfill this mission together’

Give evidence of leadership not being a significant factor?

Trump (2016)- Allegation about sexual conduct, offensive remarks, and controverisal statements, and scandals (e.g Hollywood Access). All of these damaged Trumps image to the public, but he was still able to win, showing that leadership isn’t the only factor which is significant

Overall judgement of leadership?

Leadership is highly significant as a factor, this is because, proven strength and reliabilty dramatically win elections.

3 ways leadership can impact electoral outcomes?

• Competence

• Charisma and communication

• Scandals/Trustworthiness

Evidence for competence

Obama (2012)- Voters like leaders who seem capable of handling issues, Obama’s calm handling of economic recovery

Evidence for Charisma and Communication

Reagan (1980)- His optimism, clear speeches and engaging personality helped him win support from voters unhappy with Carter. He was also dubbed with the term ‘great communicator’

Evidence for Scandals

Trump (2016)- Allegation about sexual conduct, offensive remarks, and controverisal statements, and scandals (e.g Hollywood Access). All of these damaged Trumps image to the public.

When considering ‘issues’ in elections, what do we consider? Also give me evidence to prove that issues are significant in impacting elections

When considering issues we consider the economy, trade, immigration and social policies. These can affect electoral outcomes because voters support candiates whose policies align with their immediate economic and social concerns

Trump (2024)- 93% of Trump votes said that the economy was very important to their vote, Trump promised to cut taxes for individuals and business, arguing it would leave more money in voters’ pockets and stimulate growth, he also resonated with everyday voters sruggling financially with the damaging effects of inflation. On top of this many voters were also concerned about the competition for jobs and government resouces, due to immigration. Trump addressing problems like this reinforced support from voters who were already motivated by his economic issues

Give evidence to show that issues doesn’t really have a significant impact?

Obama (2012)- After the financial crash, the US economy was still recovering in 2012, unemployment was still aroung 8%, and many households were still affected by the housing crash and slow wage growth. Despite all of these economic concerns, people voted for Obama again due to things such as his competence, calmness and steadiness in handling recovery

Overall judgement for issues

Issues are highly significant as a factor, as they consistently are the top priority for voters and can decisively swing key demographics, as seen with the economy in 2024. Many young voters were with Trump due to his stance on tax cuts and no tax on tips

When considering media in Presidential elections, what do we consider

We consider Mainstream, Alternative, and social media, as well as paid debates and advertising

3 ways in which media can affect electoral outcomes in the US?

• Mainstream Media

• Social Media

• Alternative Media

What is mainstream media and give an example of it affecting electoral outcomes in the US

Mainstream media is the media that is usually broadcasted on TVs and through radio

Kennedy v Nixon (1960)- This was the 1st US Presidential election with televised debates, JFK appeared confident, calm and well-presented on TV, Nixon looked tired, unwell and uncomfortable. This showed the power of visual media over heard media. JFK’s image helped him win a very narrow election

What is social media and give an example of it affecting electoral outcomes in the US?

The media which is mostly used for communication e,g Tiktok, Instagram etc.

Trump (2016)- Trump tweeted directly to millions of followers multiple times a day, one of his most shared messages was attacking Hillary Clinton’s emails, repeatedly calling her ‘Crooked Hillary’, this made her seem dishonest and untrustworthy to the public, damaging her credibility, showinh how social media can be used to attack fellow candidates and ruin their reputation

What is alternative media, and give an example of it affecting electoral outcomes in the US

Alternative media is usually things such as podcasts or talk shows

Trump (2024)- His appearence on the Joe Rogan podcast in 2024, during his presidential campaign run up, he talked for a multitude of hours.

This is significant as it allows people to feel more connected witht the candidate, as they may hear their story and the justification of their views, swaying people to vote for them affecting electoral outcomes.

Give an example of media having a significant impact?

Kennedy v Nixon (1960)- This was the 1st US Presidential election with televised debates, JFK appeared confident, calm and well-presented on TV, Nixon looked tired, unwell and uncomfortable. This showed the power of visual media over heard media. JFK’s image helped him win a very narrow election

Give an example of media not having a significant impact?

Hillary Clinton (2016)- During the 2016 election, Hillary won all the presidential debates, and portrayed a negative view of Trump, yet she still lost the election

This is because media coverage often reinforces pre-existing partisan loyalties rather than changing many votes, other factors are more decisive such as issues and leadership, especially as media is underpinned under both of them

Overall judgement for media

Media is quite significant as a factor, but not decisive as a factor, this is because it powerfully shapes the campaign environment and can cause temporary poll shifts, but is often limited by deep-seated partisanship and other structural factors.

What is a PAC?

This refers to a Political Action Committee, an organisation that collects money fom members to donate directly to candidates, but with limits

NRA-PVF- This is the lobbying arm of the National Rifle Association and they donate directly to pro-gun candidates

What is a Super PAC?

A Super PAC is an organisation that can raise unlimited money from individuals or corporations, but cannot donate directly to candidates, but they can spend independently on ads and for the candidate.

Priorities USA Action spent millions on ads for Biden in 2020, helping him reach voters in key states, without providing him with money directly

3 key decisions which have impacted on the nature of campaign funding in the US

• Allow candidates personal wealth to influence elections

• Allow corporations and unions to spend unlimited money independently

• Attempt to limit unregulated campaign funds and ‘soft money’ contributions

Evidence of how the decision allows candidates personal wealth to influence elections?

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)- The SC ruled that candidates can spend unlimited personal money on their own campaigns because it is a form of free speech. This means wealth candidates can finance more advertising, staff, and outreach, giving them an advantage over less wealthy opponents

Evidence of how the decisions allow corporations and unions to spend unlimited money independently?

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)- The Court decided, 5-4 majority that corporations and unions can spend unlimited funds on independent ads supporting or opposing candidates. This led to the rise of Super PAC’s, which can buy TV ads, social media campaigns, without giving money directly to the candidate.

Evidence of how the decisions attempt to limit unregulated campaign funds and ‘soft money’?

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)- This law banned soft money contributions (money donated to political parties not subject to federal contribution limits). The aim was to reduce hidden or unregulated money, though later rulings such as Citizens United undermined parts of it.

3 ways money can impact electoral outcomes in the US?

• Advertising and media exposure

• Campaign staff and Infrastructure

• Increases influence of wealthy donors and interest groups

Example of how advertising and media exposure is a way money can impact electoral outcomes in the US?

Trump (2016)- In 2016, Super PAC’s such as Rebuilding America Now spent millions on pro-Trump ads in swing states like Florida and Pennsylvania

Increases voter awareness and can sway undecided voters, giving well-funded candidates an advantage

Example of how campaign staff and infrastructure is a way money can impact electoral outcomes in the US?

Obama (2008)- He used a well-funded ground game with staff and data analytics to mobilise millions of voters

Shows how money helps campaigns target swing voters and increase turnout, directly influencing election results

Example of how increasing infleunce of wealthy donors is a way money can impact electoral outcomes in the US?

Citizens United v FEC (2010)- Super PACs allowing to independently spend as much as they wish.

This can skew elections towards candiates backed by the richest donors

3 criticisms of the means of funding election campaigns in the US?

• Large Donors have too much influence

• Its hard to know who is paying for campaigns

• Candidates focus too much on fundraising

Example of large donors having too much influence as a criticism of the means of funding elections?

Super PACs can take unlimited money from billionaires and large corporations due to (Citizens United v FEC 2010)

Ordinary voters have less power, and candidates may favour wealthy interests

Example of its hard to know who is paying for campaigns as a criticism of the means of funding elections?

Some money comes from groups that don’t have to reveal donors (dark money).

In 2016. Rebuilding America Now spent millions on Trump’s campaign without showing all their donors

Voters don’t always know who is influencing candidates, which reduces accountability.

Example of candidates focus too much on fundraising as a criticism of the means of funding elections?

In 2020 election $14 billion was spent and that is a stark contrast to that of 2016 where $2.4 billion was spent

Evidence to prove money has a significant impact in determing electoral outcomes?

Obama (2008)- His campaign raised over $750 million, whereas McCain’s campaign raised about $370 million. Obama was able to use his money to fund TV ads, ground campaigns and online outreach in swing states. The extra funding allowed Obama to reach more voters more effectively

Evidence to prove that money isn’t significant in determining electoral outcomes?

Clinton (2016)- She outspent Trump yet she still lost the election, he spent almost twice the amount he did, but Trump relied on free media coverage and targetted digital ads effectively to win the election

Overall judgement for money

It is a significant factor but not all determining, this is because adequate funding is essential, but stratergy, message and other factors can outweigh a spending disadvantage.

3 options in which campaign finance can be reformed?

• Voting with Dollars

• Clean Elections

• Constitutional Amendments

What is ‘voting with dollars’?

Voting with dollars was a system described in detail by 2 Yale Law School Professors, where each voter is given a publicly funded voucher that they can donate to federal political campaigns. Donations are made anonymously through the FEC, so candiates cannot see who contributes what.

The aim is to reduce the influence of wealthy donors, put together voter money to make candidate accountable to a broad spectrum of voters, and also give taxpayers a say in how public funding is used

What is ‘clean elections’?

Candidates receive a set amount of public funding if they qualify (through collecting signatures and small contributions) and agree not to accept outside donations or use their own money. Matching funds are also provided if candidates are being outspent or attacked by independently funded campaigns

The goal of this is to level the playing field, reduce the impact of special interest groups and encourage more competition, particularly for less wealthy candidates

Constitiutional Amendments to do with reforming campaign finance?

Proposed amendments like CFR28 aim to restrict campaign funding to small citizens contributions and public financing, reducing the infleuence of wealthy donors. It also aimed to limit independent political ads that cost more than a certain amount, so SUPER PAC’s couldn’t spend huge sums trying to influence elections without going through pulbic funding rules.

4 theories why people vote the way they do?

• Rational Choice- Voters decide which party/candidate would benefit them the most and base their vote of off that

• Spatial Model- When voters have an issue which is close to their heart, usually a dividing issue, and the party/candidate whos policies align closest to that specific issue will receive their vote

• Valence Model- Voters vote for the party/candidate they think would perform best in government

• Party Identification Model- People have a basic preference of loyalty for a political party, and this is known as partisan alignment

Give 4 sociological factors which affect voting behaviour?

• Age

• Social Class / Occupation

• Ethnicity

• Region

Give me evidence of age affecting voting behaviour?

Younger voters tend to support Democrats, while older voters lean Republican. For example in 2020, Biden won 61% of voters aged 18-30, while Trump won 60% of voters aged 65+

However, age is not always decisive because younger voters typically have less turnout. In 2016, Trump won key states like Florida and Ohio despite youth support leaning more towards Clinton, as older voters had higher turnout. Therefore voter turnout often wanes the significance of age.

Give me evidence of social class/ occupation affecting voting behaviour?

Working-class voters, especially white voters without a college degree, tend to lean Republican. In 2016, Trump won 52% of this group, helping him get Rust Belt States, helping him win the Presidency.

However, social and cultural issues can shift this pattern. In 2020, suburban working-class women in Pennsylvania leaned toward Biden, due to Trump’s poor handling of COVID 19 and social policies, helping Biden reclaim the state

Give me evidence of ethnicity affecting voting behaviour?

Ethnic groups often show strong voting preferences: 87% of Afro American voted for Biden in 2020, helping secure Democratic victories in states like Michigan, Wisconsin and Georgia. Latino voters in Arizonia also leaned Democratic, helping Biden gain the state.

However, not all ethnics vote the same. In 2016, 45% of Latinos voted for Trump, due to his conservative stances on business and social issues, showing other factors influence voting behaviour.

Give me evidence of region affecting voting behaviour?

Regional patterns are quite clear, the South tends Republican, while the Northeast and West Coast lean Democratic. Trump won most Southern states in 2016, while Clinton dominated California, New York etc.

Regional loyalty can be broken by national crises or candidate appeal. For example Biden flipped Arizonia in 2020, showing that regional patterns are not fixed

3 ways in which direct democracy is used in the US?

• Ballot Initiatives

• Referendums

• Recall Petitions

What is a ballot initiative and give an example of one? (3 ways direct democracy is used)

Ballot initiatives are when citizens, or the state legislatures themselves can propose laws, or constitituional amendments and vote on them directly, and these measures appear on election ballots

Proposition 64 (California)- This initiative propsed to legalise possession and use of marijuana for adults aged 21 and over, and also allow the state to regulate and tax marijuana sales. At least 365,880 signatures were needed to place this propostion on the ballot. The proposal was decided by a statewide popular vote and it was approved by voters being state law

Ballot initiatives are insignificant as they oversimplify comples issues, and there is no room for an actual informed debate about the policy

What is a referendum and give an example of one? (3 ways direct democracy is used)

Referendum is when voters get to approve or reject laws which have already been passed by their legislative bodies.

Maine Question 1 (2012)- This allowed voters to decide on whether a law passed by the legislature to legalise same-sex marriage should be upheld or not; it passed the voted with 52.6% voting yes. The law took effect later that year, allowing same-sex marriage couples to marry legally in Maine

Significant as it highlights how controversial issues can be decided by popular vote

What is a recall petition and give an example of one? (3 ways direct democracy is used)

A recall petition is when citizens can attempt to remove an elected official from office before the end of their term, this applies to governors of states, state legislators and local officials, however not at a federal level

Governor Gray Davis (2003)- Voters in California organised a recall petition to remove Governor Davis from office due to dissatisfaction with the state’s budget deficit and energy crisis. Supporters collected the required number of signatures roughly 900,000 to trigger a recall election. In 2003, the recall election was held. Voters chose to remove Davis and elected Arnold Schwarzenegger as his replacement

This increases accountability and gives power to the electorate.

2 premises for direct democracy?

• It gives citizens a direct say on key or controversial issues

• It holds politicians accountable

Evidence to use that it gives citizens a say on key or controverisal issues?

Maine Question 1 (2012)

California Propostion 64 (2016)