Chapter 7: Memory

Memory

a collection of several systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time

Stores

retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose

→ sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Control Processes

shift information from one memory store to another

Attention

selects which information will be passed on to STM 

Encoding

the process of storing information in the LTM system

Retrieval

brings information from LTM back into STM

Sensory Memory

a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time

Iconic Memory

the visual form of sensory memory

Echoic Memory

the auditory form of sensory memory

Change Blindness

a psychological phenomenon where people fail to notice significant changes to an object or scene in their visual field, even when those changes are quite obvious

Short-Term Memory (STM)

a memory store with limited capacity and duration (approximately 30 seconds)

Chunking

organizing smaller units of information into larger, more meaningful units

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

holds information for extended periods of time

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

when you are able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with the same letter but can’t quite retrieve the word you actually want

Serial Position Effect

In general, most people will recall the first few items from a list and the last few items , but only an item or two from the middle

Proactive Interference

a process in which the first information learned (e.g. in a list of words) occupies memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember the newer information

Retroactive Interference

the most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long-term memory

Rehearsal

repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore

Working Memory

a model of short-term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time 

Central Executive

control centre which coordinates storage components

Phonological Loop

a storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores information as sounds, or as an auditory code

Word-Length Effect

shows that people remember more one-syllable words than four-syllable or five-syllable words in a short term memory task

Visuospatial Sketchpad

a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code

Feature Binding

Episodic Buffer

a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes

Central Executive

the control centre of working memory, which coordinated attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components

Declarative Memories

memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized, including facts about the world and our own personal experiences

Nondeclarative Memories

include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness

Semantic Memories

declarative memories that include facts about the world

Procedural Memory

learned patterns of muscle movements

Long-term Potentiation

demonstrated that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together

Consolidation

the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the brain 

Cellular Consolidation

Amnesia

a profound loss of at least one form of memory

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury

Storage

the time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval 

Reconsolidation

the hippocampus functions to update, strengthen, or modify existing long-term memories

Cross-Cortical Storage

when long-term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain, rather than being located in one region

Retrograde Amnesia

a condition in which memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost

Maintenance Rehearsal

prolonging exposure to information by repeating it

Elaborative Rehearsal

prolonging exposure to information by thinking about its meaning

Levels of Processing (LOP)

Shallow Processing

involves encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus (sound or the spelling of a word)

Deep Processing

generally related to encoding information about an items meaning or its function

Self-Reference Effect

occurs when you think about information in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you; this type of encoding will lead you to remembering that information better than you otherwise would have

Recognition

involves identifying a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented to you

Recall

involves retrieving information when asked but without that information being present during the retrieval process

Encoding Specificity Principle

states that retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same

Context-Dependent Memory

the idea that retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as encoding

State-Dependent Memory

states that retrieval is more effective when you internal state matches the state you were in during encoding

Mood-Dependent Memory

states that people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding

Weapon Focus

the tendency to focus on a weapon at the expense of peripheral information; including the identity of the person holding the weapon

Flashbulb Memory

an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event

Forgetting Curve

shows that most forgetting occurs right away, and that the rate of forgetting eventually slows to the point where one does not seem to forget at all

Mnemonic

a technique intended to improve memory for specific information

Method of Loci

a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path

Acronyms

pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items

First-Letter Technique

uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out works that form a sentence

Dual Coding

occurs when information is stored in more than one form

Desirable Difficulties

techniques that make studying slower and more effortful, but result in better overall remembering

Testing Effect

taking practice tests can improve exam performance, even without additional studying

Cognitive Offloading

the use of an action or device to reduce cognitive demands imposed by a given task