psych honors midterm exam

pilot study

trying out a study on a small scale (few participants) to determine whether there are problems with the research methods

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intuition

relying on common sense as a means of knowing things about the world

deduction

using logical reasoning and current knowledge as a means of knowing things about the world

authority

relying on a knowledgeable person as a means of knowing things about the world

observation

relying on what one observes as a means of knowing things about the world

research

_____ is a reliable way to “know” things and to support (or discredit) claims about fact and fiction.

empericism

gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world

determinism

the assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes

parsimony

the assumption that the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most likely to be correct (occam’s razor)

testability

the assumption that explanations of behavior can be tested and falsified through observation

falsifiability

the idea that the strongest hypotheses can be challenged

confirmation bias

seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts those beliefs.

basic research

research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental processes of phenomena

applied research

research conducted with the goal of solving everyday problems

external validity

the degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study; often a major concern of applied researchers, as they aim to solve real-world problems, and their results cannot be limited to laboratory conditions.

theory

an explanation of behavior that can be tested through research studies; these can help to guide research questions.

descriptive research question

a research question that asks about the presence of a behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors.

causal research question

a research question that asks what *cause* a specific behavior to occur

scientific method

any good research question should be able to be tested via the _____

literature review

a process of searching for and reviewing previous studies related to a study being developed to add to the knowledge in an area and make appropriate predictions about the data.

variable

an attribute that can vary across individuals

peer review

a process that takes place prior to the publication of an article in many journals where experts make suggestions for improving an article and make a recommendation about whether an article should be published in the journal (adds credibility)

abstract

a short (120-150 word) summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal articles, includes a brief, sentence long summary of each section of the paper.

introduction

a section of an APA-style article that introduces the topic of the study, reviews relevant background studies, and presents predictions for the data.

method

section of an APA-style article that describes the participants, design, stimuli, apparatus, and procedure used in the study.

results

section of an APA-style paper that presents a summary of the the statistical tests of the predictions, often including tables and figures

discussion

section of an APA-style paper that compares the results of a study to the predictions and the results of previous studies (should include conclusions drawn from the study as well as addressing of limitations).

hypothesis

a prediction regarding the results of a research study.

theory-driven hypothesis

a hypothesis for a study that is based on a theory about the behavior of interest

deductive reasoning

the process of using general information to make a specific prediction

data-driven hypothesis

a hypothesis for a study that is based on the results of previous, related studies

inductive reasoning

using specific information to make a more general prediction.

descriptive hypothesis

a prediction about the results of a study that describes the behavior or the relationship between behaviors.

causal hypothesis

a prediction about the results of a study that includes the causes of a behavior.

nuremberg code

a set of ethical guidelines developed for research with human participants based on information: participation must be consensual and voluntary (can be withdrawn at any time), research must contribute to scientific knowledge, and researchers must avoid unnecessary risk/harm.

APA code items later added to the nuremburg code

reduction of harm due to deception and assurance of confidentiality of participant data

informed consent

consent obtained from participants for participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose, procedure, and risks of the research.

coercion

forcing participants to participate in or continue research without their explicit informed consent (Tuskegee experiments)

deception

misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of a research study (milgram’s shock studies)

milgram’s (1963) obedience study

looked at how influenced people are by the instruction of authority when it comes to committing harm to others by having participants administer shocks at the order of a researcher.

confederate

a person who is part of a research study but acts as though they are not in order to deceive the participant about the study’s purpose

zimbardo’s (1973) prison experiment

studied how the social roles placed on us influence our behavior by placing college students in the roles of prisoners and guards.

debriefing

discussing the purpose of a research study with participants, often done at the end of a study.

belmont report

lists the responsibilities of researchers as they conduct research with human participants and the right of those participants before, during, and after a study (includes respect for persons, beneficence, and justice).

consent form

a form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and to explain the study’s purpose, risks, and the participants’ rights

risk-benefit analysis

weighing the risks against the benefits of a research study to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks.

confidentiality

the idea that it is the researcher’s responsibility to protect the participants’ identities and rights to privacy during and after the research study.

institutional review board (IRB)

a committee of knowledgeable individuals who oversee the ethics of research with human participants conducted at an institution.

demand characteristics

a source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose (explains the need for deception)

field study

an experiment conducted in the participants’ natural environment

institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)

a committee of knowledgeable individuals that oversees the ethics of research with nonhuman animal subjects at an institution

plagiarism

claiming another’s work or ideas as one’s own.

internal validity

the degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior.

higher, lower

generally, the ___ the external validity, the ___ the internal validity.

reliability

the degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions

operational definition

the definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate (quantify) the concept in a research study

dependent/response variable

a variable that is measured or observed from an individual

naturalistic observation

a data collection technique involving noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environment (typically involving some sort of coding scheme)

inter-observer/-rater reliability

a measure of the degree to which different observers record or code behavior in similar/matching ways (or in different ways).

survey research

a research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behaviors.

close-ended response scale

participants respond to survey questions according to the response options provided by the researcher

quantitative data

numerical data

open-ended response scale

participants respond to survey questions in any manner they feel is appropriate for the question

qualitative data

nonnumerical participant responses

interviews

a data collection technique that involves direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes

construct validity

indicates that a survey measures the behavior it is designed to measure

systematic observation

data collection technique where control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed

archival data

a data collection technique that involves the analysis of preexisting data.

content analysis

an archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual’s spoken or written record (similar to coding)

case study

a research design that involves intensive study or particular individuals and their behaviors (often used when exploring a potentially new condition)

small-n design

an experiment conducted with one or few participants to better understand the specific behavior of those individuals (results cannot be generalized)

correlational study

a type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without directly manipulating any of the variables

predictor variable

the dependent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable

outcome variable

the dependent variable in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable

positive relationship

the variables change together in the same direction

negative relationship

a relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable

scatterplot

a graph showing the relationship between two dependent variables for a group of individuals

third-variable problem

the presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity of a study

experiment

a type of research design that involves the manipulation of an independent variable allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results

independent variable

a variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher such that the labels of the variable change across or within subjects in the experiment

levels of the independent variable

different situations or conditions that participants experience in an experiment because of the manipulation of the independent variable

experimental group

the group of participants in an experiment that experience the treatment level of the independent variable

control group

the group of participants in an experiment that do not experience the treatment level of the independent variable.

confounding variables

an extraneous factor present in a study that may affect the results

random assignment

participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individuals differences as an extraneous variable.

placebo

a “false” or fake treatment given to the control group to allow all groups to believe that they are receiving treatment

quasi-experiment

a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

ex post facto design

a quasi-experiment where subjects are grouped based on a characteristic they already possess (like age or gender)

pretest-posttest design

a type of research design (often a quasi-experiment) where behavior is measured both before and after a treatment or condition is implemented.

nominal scale

a scale of data measurement that involves nonordered categorical responses (college major, gender identity, etc.)

ordinal scale

a scale of data measurement that involves ordered categorical responses that are not assumed to be equidistant from each other (ex: ranking your favorite cereals from best to worst)

interval scale

a scale of data measurement that involves numerical responses that are equally spaced, but scores are not ratios of each other and there is no absolute zero (ex: fahrenheit temperature, SAT scores)

likert scale

a scale of measurement that measures a participant’s agreement or disagreement with different types of statements, often with a rating from 1 to 5 or 1 to 7.

ratio scale

a scale of measurement that involves numerical responses, where scores are ratios of each other (ex: weight, time)

reaction time

a measurement of the length of time it takes to complete a task (ex of interval scale)

nonverbal scale

a survey response scale that involves pictorial response categories for participants with low verbal scales (often used with children who may struggle to understand existing concepts or operational definitions)

face validity

on the surface, a scale or study *appears* to be intuitively valid; the scale seems to measure what you want it to or think it does.

presence/absence variable

a variable that involves a manipulation with a level that involves the treatment and a level that does not involve the treatment

bivalent independent variable

an independent variable with two levels; a design is considered this if it contains only *one* of this kind of independent variable.

type variable

a variable that involves a manipulation of the types of treatment (ex: using 3 different versions of an ad to see which is the most persuasive)