Behaviourism Flashcards

What did Galileo do?

Fostered observation over assumption

What is philosophy in psychology

Reasoning from assumptions to conclusions. Truth is absolute and deals with abstractions (God, harmony).

What is science in psychology

Proceeds from observable evidence to conclusions. Truth is relative and focuses on the natural world.

What was psychology’s transition from philosophy labeled and rely on

Initially labeled a ‘science of the mind’; relied on introspection (examining one's own thoughts).

What is voluntarism and who was it founded by

• Founded by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):

• Recognized as the founder of experimental psychology.

• Proposed studying consciousness and behavior through Experimental Introspection.

What is Structuralism and who was it developed by

• Developed by Edward Titchener:

• Emphasized raw experiences over derived knowledge.

• Relied heavily on introspection but was limited in scope.

Why did they move on from structuralism

Criticized for being overly reliant on introspection and neglecting unconscious processes.

What did they move onto from introspection

Movement towards objective methods due to dissatisfaction with introspection.

What is Functionalism and who was it developed by

• Focused on the practical utility of consciousness.

• William James (1842-1910) as a key proponent

What is Behaviorism and who was it developed by

• John B. Watson (1878-1958) as the founder.

• Stressed that psychology should focus on observable behavior.

What are the assumptions of behaviourism?

1. Naturalism:

   • Behaviorism is rooted in a naturalistic view.

2. Man as Machine:

   • Views humans merely as machines responding to conditioning.

3. Lack of Responsibility:

   • Humans are not held accountable for their actions.

4. Prediction:

   • Focus on predicting and controlling behavior rather than just understanding.

5. Nature/Nurture Debate:

   • Integral to the philosophy influencing behavior understanding.

What is the definition of behaviourism from a philosophical position

• A theory and pedagogy grounded in stimulus-response principles.

• All behavior is explained without considering internal mental states.

What is the definition of behaviourism from a scientific focus

Psychology must center on observable phenomena—behavior and environment—refusing subjective measures like thoughts and feelings.

What are the 3 Claims of behaviourism

1. Science of Behavior:

   • Psychology is defined as the study of behavior.

2. Description of Behavior:

   • Behavior can be explained without referring to mental processes.

3. Terminology Transformation:

   • Mental concepts must be replaced or translated into behavioral terms.

What are the 3 types of behaviourism

1. Methodological

2. Psychological

3. Analytical

What is methodological behaviourism

• Normative theory emphasizing the scientific approach of psychology focused on behavior.

• Rejects mental event references in understanding behavior—associated with John Watson.

What is psychological behaviourism

Explains behavior through external stimuli, responses, and reinforcement—linked to Pavlov, Thorndike, and chiefly B.F. Skinner.

What is analytical behaviourism

Philosophical approach regarding the semantics of mental concepts, proposing mental states are behavioral dispositions—represented by Gilbert Ryle and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

What combined all 3 forms of behaviourism?

Radical Behaviourism

What are the 3 key aspects of radical behaviourism

1. Paraphrasing mental terms behaviorally when necessary.

2. Focuses strictly on the observable behavior, aligning with methodological behaviorism.

3. Understands behavior through stimulus frequency effects, making it a form of psychological behaviorism.

What is the definition of learning in the context of behaviourism

Acquisition or modification of behavior as a result of teaching

Who is Hermann Ebbinghaus?

• German psychologist known for founding the study of memory.

• Introduced the concept of the ‘Learning Curve’ through experiments:

  • Demonstrated that higher mental processes can be experimentally analyzed.

• Established that the mind's inner workings can be measured by observing behavior.

Who is Ivan Sechenov

• Pioneer of behaviorism; all behavior is a reaction to stimulation.

• Authored "Reflexes of the Brain" in 1863.

• Identified the existence of both excitatory and inhibitory processes in the central nervous system.

Who is Vladimir M. Bekhterev

• Noted Russian behaviorist who established the first psychology lab in Russia.

• Defined his field as reflexology, emphasizing objective study of stimulus-response connections.

• Claimed all behavior is a result of environmental stimulant; introduced the concept of the association reflex.

Who is Ivan Pavlov

• Focused on the study of reflexes, notably the salivary response of dogs, termed ‘psychic secretion’:

  • Observed dogs salivating at the sound of a bell before food was present.

• Coined the term ‘conditioned reflexes’ based on his findings.

Who is Edward Lee Thorndike

• Developed an American version of behaviorism; influential figure in psychology.

• Known for his “puzzle boxes” with cats to illustrate trial-and-error learning.

• Demonstrated that reinforcement leads to learned connections in behavior.

Who is John Watson

• Known for claiming psychology is solely about behavior, not mind or consciousness:

  • Established an animal lab for research on rats and monkeys.

• Little Albert experiment:

  • Watson's notable experiment involved conditioning a child to fear a white rat using a loud noise as a stimulus, showcasing generalized fear response to similar stimuli.

  • Example of behavior modification through psychological conditioning.

• Worked in advertising, emphasizing the environment's role in behavior.

• His famous quote highlighted the belief in environmental influence over innate tendencies in shaping individuals.

Who is William McDougall

• A notable critic of Watson's behaviorism; promoted instinct theory.

• Emphasized goal-oriented behavior and referred to his approach as evolutionary psychology.

Who is Clark Leonard Hull

• Prominent behaviorist of the mid-20th century, known for formal theories of behavior.

• Developed the "hypothetic-deductive" method, emphasizing systematic experimentation.

• Hull's principles sought to establish laws of behavior related to drive and response.

• Critiqued for being overly complex and hard to apply outside controlled experiments.

Who is E. C. Tolman

• Viewed as a bridge between behaviorism and cognitive psychology:

  • Emphasized mental processes and purposeful behavior rather than rote stimulus-response.

• Researched how rats form cognitive maps, demonstrating learning could involve more than direct reinforcements.

• Introduced the concept of the 'cognitive map' as a mental framework for understanding space and behavior.

Who is Gilbert Ryle

• Critiqued traditional behaviorism for being mechanistic and lacking understanding of the mind.

• Argued that behavior reflects a person’s abilities and inclinations.

• Suggested that behavioral analysis could extend to areas like motivation and choice.

Who is B. F. Skinner

• Central figure in behaviorism, known for his work on operant conditioning and radical behaviorism:

  • Extended Watson’s theory to include the study of operant behavior.

Who is Albert Bandura

• Critiqued the one-dimensional view of behaviorism, introduced reciprocal determinism:

  • Acknowledges mutual influence between behavior and environment.

• His work on observational learning, imitation, and modeling bridges behaviorist and cognitive theories.

What is Pavlovian/Classical Conditioning and an example of it

• Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

• Builds on natural reflexes linked to neutral stimuli.

• Learning occurs through the anticipation of outcomes based on stimulus pairing.

• Example: Experiment with dogs salivating at the sound of a bell.

What is used in classical conditioning

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US):

   • Elicits a natural and automatic response (e.g., food).

2. Unconditioned Response (UR):

   • Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation).

3. Neutral Stimulus (NS):

   • Stimulus that initially does not trigger a response.

4. Conditioned Response (CR):

   • Learned response that occurs after the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

What experiment did Pavlov do for classical conditioning

• Before conditioning: Food (US) leads to salivation (UR).

• During conditioning: Bell (NS) is paired with food.

• After conditioning: Bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting salivation (CR).

What is an example of Conditioned response - Controlled situation

Baby laughs in anticipation of tickles upon seeing mother's hand—a conditioned response after learning the association.

What is extinction in classical conditioning and an example

• Extinction occurs when the conditioned response weakens after the CS is presented without the US.

• Example in Everyday Life:

  • Baby stops laughing at mother's hand if tickling does not occur repeatedly after seeing it.

What is spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period where no conditioning trials occur.

What is Second Order conditioning and an example

• Involves pairing a CS with a new US to elicit the original CR.

• Example: A light paired with food leads to salivation; but later, the bell paired with the light will also trigger salivation.

What is generalization

Tendency for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses.

What is discrimination

Ability to differentiate between stimuli that have or have not been paired with a US.

When does conditioning happen most effective and strategically

• Effectiveness: Best when the CS precedes the US by a brief interval.

• Strategic Placement: Importance of timely cues in communication, for e.g., warning signs.

What is counter conditioning

• Replace a conditioned response with a competing response, often to eliminate fears.

• Comparison: Similar to systematic desensitization techniques in therapy.

What is Systemic desensitization

Phobia treatment through a three-phase process: anxiety hierarchy development, relaxation techniques, and gradual exposure.

What is the relationship between CR and UR

Despite seeming similar, they are distinct bodily reactions.

What is instrumental (operant) conditioning

• Involves behaviors not triggered by stimuli.

• Focuses on behaviors initiated by the organism (voluntary behaviors).

• Unlike classical conditioning, which involves automatic reflex learning.

What are Thorndike’s major theoretical concepts

• Connectionism: Link between stimulus (S) and response (R).

• Trial-and-error Learning: The fundamental form of learning according to Thorndike.

  • Experiment with puzzle boxes demonstrated decreasing time to solve problems as trials increased.

• Experimental Psychology: Establishes the relationship between animal and human learning.

  • Emphasizes learning through instinct and experience.

What was Thorndike’s experiment

• Puzzle Box Experiment:

  • A hungry cat placed in a box to escape by performing tasks.

  • Rewarded with food after successful escape; the task repeated until mastered.

  • Time taken to escape decreased as trials increased.

  • Findings show gradual learning rather than instant insight.

What are Throndike’s 3 laws of learning

1. Law of Readiness:

   • Satisfaction is linked to readiness.

   • Ready learners find performance satisfying; unprepared learners find forceful tasks annoying.

2. Law of Exercise:

   • Connection strength between stimulus and response enhances with practice.

   • Law of Use: Strongens connections with use.

   • Law of Disuse: Weakens connections when unused.

3. Law of Effect:

   • Reinforcement strengthens behaviors; punishment weakens them.

   • Positive outcomes reinforce connections, while negative outcomes weaken them.

What distinction did Skinner make between 2 kinds of behaviour

Differentiated between Respondent Behavior (elicited by known stimuli) and Operant Behavior (not linked to specific stimuli).

2 kinds of conditioning according to Skinner

• Respondent Conditioning (Classical): Elicited by stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Responses emitted by organisms operating on their environment. Importance of reinforcing stimuli in enhancing behaviors.

What is the definition of operant conditioning

“A behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms’ tendency to repeat the behavior in the future.”

Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments

• Developed the Skinner Box for efficient behavioral studies.

• Lever pressing or pecking for food rewards in controlled settings.

What is the reinforcement principle

A response that is followed by a reinforcement is strengthened and more likely to occur.

1. Behaviour is influenced by consequence

2. Reinforcement is Crucial

3. Responses EMITTED due to reinforcement

What is reinforcement

A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future.

What is contingent reinforcement

This process exemplifies contingent reinforcement because getting the reinforcer is contingent (dependent) on the organism emitting a certain response.

What are the 2 types of reinforcers

• Positive Reinforcement: Adds pleasurable stimulus to increase response.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removal of unpleasant stimuli increases response likelihood.

What are the categories of reinforcers

• Primary: Biological needs satisfied.

• Secondary: Conditioned reinforcers paired with primary.

• Generalized: Broad reinforcers like attention.

What is punishment in operant conditioning

• Unpleasant addition or removal of stimulus decreases behavior likelihood.

• Critical Types: Punishment by application (adding negative stimulus) and removal (taking away positive stimulus).

What is the social learning theory according to Bandura

• Emphasizes observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions.

• Distinction between imitation and observational learning:

  • Observational learning may or may not involve imitation.

How does the social learning theory explain human behaviour

Continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

What are the general principles of SLT

1. Learning occurs by observing others and their behaviors' outcomes.

2. Change in behavior is not always necessary for learning to take place.

3. Cognition plays an important role in learning.

4. Bridges behaviorist and cognitive learning theories.

What are the cognitive factors in SL

1. Attention processes during learning.

2. Retention processes.

What are the types of models in SL

• Live model: actual person demonstrating behavior.

• Symbolic model: person or action shown in media like TV, films, etc.

What behaviours are learned through modeling

• Aggression.

• Moral thinking and behavior influenced by observation.

What are the effects of modelling

• Teach new behaviors.

• Influence frequency of previously learned behaviors.

• Encourage previously forbidden behaviors.

• Increase frequency of similar behaviors.

What is the role of the environment in reinforcing and punishing modeling

1. Observer reinforced by the model.

2. Observer reinforced by a third person.

3. Imitated behavior leads to reinforcing consequences.

4. Vicarious reinforcement affects observer's behavior based on model's consequences.

What experiment did Bandura conduct

• The Bobo Doll Experiment

• To study aggression patterns

• Children exposed to aggressive models were more likely to behave aggressively.

• Children more influenced by same-sex models.

• Evidence suggests males tend to be more aggressive than females.

What are the aspects of self-regulation

1. Setting standards and goals.

2. Self observation.

3. Self judge.

4. Self reaction.

How does Self efficacy affect SL

• Higher likelihood of engaging in behaviors when individuals believe they can succeed.

• High self-efficacy linked to:

  • More effort and persistence.

  • Less fear and anxiety.

  • Greater control over environmental events.

What are the educational implications of SLT

1. Students learn by observing others.

2. Describing behaviors' consequences helps shape appropriate behaviors.

3. Modeling is an alternative to shaping new behaviors.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors.

5. Exposure to a variety of models is crucial for students.

6. Students must believe in their capabilities.

7. Help setting realistic academic expectations.

8. Use self-regulation techniques to improve behavior.