Ch 8 Guide

Describe the cognitions as a construct.

Cognitions are the mental processes and content that help us understand, interpret, and unite constructs like our beliefs, expectations, goals, judgments, values, etc. It helps an individual make sense of their experiences and events and helps with a self-concept to help create motivational forces. Cognition can include information-processing, memory, and problem-solving.

What is the TOTE model? Provide a unique example.

The TOTE model stands for test-operate-test-exit. It is a model that tries to explain how plans energize and direct behavior through the proposed cognitive mechanism of TOTE. Test means to compare someone’s present state to its ideal state, and if the present and ideal state are congruous, then nothing happens. However, if they are incongruent, then it is this discrepancy that provides motivation for someone to take action, or “operate” on their environment to try to solve this discrepancy. Then, they will test again, and if the present and ideal state match, then the person can finally “exit” the plan. A unique example can be planning to organize their spice rack in the pantry. The present state of the person (or rather the spice rack) is that the spice drawers are not organized by type (spicy, sweet, etc.) So, the person can try to organize the spices by type (operating) and test a second time to see if it matches the ideal state of an organized spice rack that is separated by type of spice. If the person is satisfied, then they can exit the plan (TOTE) or they can change their mind and decide paprika goes next to cayenne instead of Cajun, and go through the T-O-T process again until they reach the E. 

What is the relationship between incongruity and corrective motivation?

Incongruity leads to corrective motivation. Incongruity is one’s feeling that their present and ideal state do not match. Corrective motivation suggests that plans are adjustable, and in order to reach that ideal state, corrective motivation can occur to adjust plans, behavior, or encourage withdrawal from the plans due to the person’s incongruity.

How can emotions energize behavior?

Positive emotions lead us to believe that we are doing better at something than is needed, whereas negative emotions signal to us that we are doing bad or worse than what is needed. Negative emotions can energize behavior because it facilitates a discrepancy and encourages someone to reduce these feelings of discrepancy, whereas positive emotions can act as the easing motivator itself and allows one to “coast” or relax because they are already doing better. Relaxing is still a way that emotions can energize behavior. 

What are the differences between discrepancy reduction and creation?

Discrepancy reduction is a reactive plan-based corrective motivation. It is when we have an ideal state that the environment imposes on us and utilizes a negative feedback loop of “Am I currently performing at the desired level?” Once this level is reached, then discrepancy is no longer felt. Discrepancy creation is instead an ideal state that only exists in the person’s mind which utilizes a positive feedback loop to create change. It is more proactive than reactive, where a person doesn’t focus on their deficits, but what they can create, enhance and achieve in the future.  

What three things do goals need to be effective?

In order for goals to be effective, it should be difficult, specific, and be congruent with one’s goals. High difficulty let us exert high effort, specificity helps us have more performance feedback, and self-congruent goals help draw intrinsic motivation. 

What are the effects of feedback?

Feedback tells someone whether or not they are performing below, at, or above a level that they want to be. Depending on which level they are performing at, they can either be very dissatisfied and work harder to eliminate incongruity (performing below level) or feel satisfied/competent enough to create a more difficult goal. 

What are the criticisms of goal-setting theory?

The criticisms of goal-setting theory are that it only works when tasks are uninteresting and require a linear step-by-step process. People do not pursue just one goal at a time either, oftentimes people can have multiple goals that conflict with each other (i.e. wanting to go out to more concerts vs needing to save money).

What are some self-regulating criteria for goal-attainment?

The self-regulating criteria for goal-attainment is being able to get started, stay on track, and resume. 

When is goal disengagement be beneficial? Why?

Goal disengagement can be beneficial because some goals can be truly unattainable due to either changes in circumstances, personal resources, or having too many or conflicting goals. When disengagement is adaptive, then it is truly beneficial because it prevents someone from experiencing further distress if the goal is truly too attainable. It is not giving up a goal, it is  just adjusting and adapting the goal to make it more achievable, which in turn generates positive emotions.