CIV 202 Ch. 22 - Patterns of Nation-States and Culture in the Atlantic World

Why were the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions so radical?

They rejected the British compromise of royal and parliamentary power and led to republican, middle-class, or liberated slave nation-states without traditional divine right monarchies

American colonies in 1763

Experiencing rapid growth; this rapid growth caused the British to employ troops to protect settlers and Native Americans from each other

Coercive Acts

or Intolerable Acts; This series of laws were very harsh laws that intended to make Massachusetts pay for its resistance. It also closed down the Boston Harbor until the Massachusetts colonists paid for the ruined tea. Also forced Bostonians to shelter soldiers in their own homes. Put Massachusetts in bankruptcy.

American Revolution

This political revolution began with the Declaration of Independence in 1776 where American colonists sought to balance the power between government and the people and protect the rights of citizens in a democracy. French supplied the Americans with money arms and officers in 1778-1789. With this help, America won in 1783 and the founders created a revolutionary federal republic that represented many inhabitants of the population, but excluded many people.

Declaration of Independence

the document recording the proclamation of the second Continental Congress (4 July 1776) asserting the independence of the colonies from Great Britain; central to the declaration was that the idea of the equality of all "men" was "self-evident," and all men were were entitled to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

Early United States

Fraught with organizational difficulties with the Articles of Confederation; in 1787 a new federal constitution proved more effective; in 1789 George Washington was elected as the first president;

Articles of Confederation

A weak constitution that governed America during the Revolutionary War; gave the states too much power

Constitution

Formed in 1787 to be more effective than the Articles of Confederation; Included checks and balances in the form of a bicameral legislature and separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches; embodied Enlightenment ideals

How did the American and French Revolutions illustrate a new pattern of state formation and the advent of modernity?

Abolition of divine right and monarchical rule and replacement with the people's sovereignty; Previously unimaginable reversal of the natural order of things

Conditions for the French Revolution

War costs from the American War of Independence, caused France to enter crippling debt; Government continued to borrow to accommodate the rising population and war debts; By 1788 the government was nearly bankrupt

Estates General

King Louis XVI called this in May 1789 to discuss the financial crises; An assembly of representatives from all three of the estates, or social classes, in France, specifically Versailles.

French "Third Estate" comprised of

Peasants and commoners

French National Assembly

The Third Estate seceded the Estates General in June 1789; Stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789

French Revolution (1789-1799)

Comprised of three phases:
-First phase: Constitutional monarchy (1789-1792)
-Second Phase: Radical Republicanism (1792-1795)
-Third Phase: Military Consolidation (1795-1799)

First phase of the French Revolution (1789-1792)

Constitutional monarchy; Began with near anarchy in July and August 1789; Peasants revolted against their landlords and in October working women marched from Paris to Versailles forcing the king to move to Paris; Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen issued in 1789

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution; Subjected the Catholic Church to French civil law (1790), established a constitutional monarchy (1791), and issued laws ending unequal taxes of the Old Regime (1792).

Second Phase of the French Revolution (1792-1795)

Radical Republicanism; King and Queen deposed and executed by the people; Reign of Terror

Reign of Terror

(1793-94) during the French Revolution when thousands (30,000) were executed for "disloyalty" by the Committee of Public Safety

Third Phase of French Revolution (1795-1799)

Military Consolidation; Replacement of Committee of Public Safety by Directory in 1795; New constitution and bicameral legislature created; Scoring victories in Austria from 1796-1798, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew ineffective Directory in November 1799, ending the Revolution

Napoleon Bonaparte

Overthrew the French revolutionary government (The Directory) in 1799 and became emperor of France in 1804. Created many reforms including the Napoleonic Code. By 1810 his military victories resulted in the French domination of most of continental Europe. Failed to defeat Russia in 1812 and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but failed to defeat Great Britain and died in exile.

Napoleonic Code

A comprehensive and uniform system of laws established for France by Napoleon; Established the equality of all men theoretically, however in reality restricted many freedoms

Conditions for Haitian Revolution

Haiti was a French colony/protectorate; In the second half of the 1700s, 30,00 white settlers, 28,000 mulattos, and 500,000 black slaves formed a highly unequal colonial society; The French introduced racist measures, that deprived many mulattoes of their freedoms, to split the two to keep them uniting and resisting

Mulatto

A person of mixed African and European ancestry

Haitian Slave Rebellion

Began August 1791 in the midst of hostility between mulattos and whites; Encompassed Northern and Southern provinces; Settlers suffered heavy losses; France tried to establish order twice but made little progress because of the hostility of the whites. The second commission, however abolished slavery in August 1793; France confirmed emancipation declaration in February 1794 and conditions improved; In May 1794 Toussaint Louverture, a black rebel leader joined mulatto rebellion in the South and the rebellion turned into a full-fledged revolution

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Haitian patriot and leader of the Haitian Revolution slave rebellion; Died in 1803 after being betrayed and arrested by his general

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

He was Toussaint L'ouverture's general, whom he betrayed and took up the fight for the freedom of slaves in Saint Domingue on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean sea. In 1804, he declared the slave colony an independent country, the first black country to free itself from European control, and named the country Haiti, declaring himself emperor. Assassinated in 1806 after provoking a conspiracy when he changed the constitution in favor of autocratic rule.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

War incited by a slave uprising in French-controlled Saint Domingue, resulting in the creation of the first independent black republic in the Americas.After Toussaint and Dessalines the country split into an autocratically ruled black north with a state run plantation economy and a more democratic south with a privatized economy of small farms

Which, out of the three revolutions, most fully realized the Enlightenment principles of liberty, equality and fraternity?

Haitian Revolution

Denis Diderot

Philosopher who in 1752 edited a book called the Encyclopedia, which was first derived in England in 1728, which was banned by the French king and pope. Last volume published in 1772.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

A French philosopher who believed in and created the Social Contract (1762), that human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy. Believed in direct democracy, unlike many radicals of his time

Social Contract (1762)

the notion that society is based on an agreement between government and the governed in which people agree to give up some rights in exchange for the protection of others

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

German philosopher who was a believer in progress of history and civilization expressed in his book Perpetual Peace (1795); Rejected Descartes' two substance theory; Insisted that experience could only be understood through the categories of mind and reason, not experience, and that reason conditioned experience but was not its own substance; Sought to build morality on reason in contrast to Rousseau's Christian ethics and concluded that morality was based on his categorical imperative, which was to act in such a way that the principle of your action can be the principle of anyone's action.

Categorical Imperative

A concept developed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant as an ethical guideline for behavior. In deciding whether an action is right or wrong, or desirable or undesirable, a person should evaluate the action in terms of what would happen if everybody else in the same situation, or category, acted the same way; Entered modern thought as the basis for concrete human rights with their claim to universality as in the Charter of the U.N (1945)

Laissez-faire economics

-Literally means "hands off,"
-Created out of opposition to mercantilism in that time; Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

1. Scottish economist who wrote "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776)
2. Opposed mercantilist policies
3. Advocated free trade and "the Invisible Hand of competition"
4. Created laissez-faire economics

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)

Classical composer; Inspired by Enlightenment

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

A German author who wrote near the end of the Aufklärung, the German Enlightenment. Goethe's morose The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) helped fuel the Sturm und Drang movement, and his two-part Faust (1808, 1832) is seen as one of the landmarks of Western literature; Inspired by the Enlightenment

What ended with the Enlightenment?

The imperial turn of the French Revolution under Napoleon

Ethnic Nationalism

nationalism based on common ancestry along with the cultural traditions and language associated with a particular ethnic group; Played an important role after 1815

Johann Gottfried Herder

Influential German writer and philosopher (1744-1803) he wrote Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind in which he said that each country should have its own national identity not one borrowed from another country, he called it Volksgeist; advocated intuition over reason (1744-1803); A central German figure in shaping shared culture into a unifying ideology (1744-1803); father of modern cultural/ethnic nationalism

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)

"Father" of German nationalism; Advanced Herder's writings from a cultural Germanness to a political Germanness

"Concert of Europe"

A system in which the powers met periodically to discuss any problems affecting the peace of Europe

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Post Napoleon; European leaders agreed to meet periodically to take steps to maintain Europe's peace and stability; Driving principle: monarchical conservatism- let by Klemens von Metternich

Klemens von Metternich (Austria)

Austria's foreign minister who was an opponent of constitutionalism and argued for monarchical conservatism; Sought to accomplish this through legitimacy and balance of power.

Principle of Legitimacy

Guided Metternich at the Congress of Vienna; recognized exclusive monarchical rule in Europe and established French borders as they were in 1789 (post-Napoleon)

Principle of Balance of Power

Preventing any one country from dominating another

Charles X of France

The king that succeeded Louis XVIII, and ruled from 1824 to 1830. He is not a conservative, but a reactionary. He considered himself a monarch by divine right and moved to restore lands that the Aristocrats had lost during the revolution. The French liberals wanted a legitimately constitutional regime, and when matters came to a head in 1829 Charles abandoned efforts to accommodate liberals and appointed an ultraroyalist ministry; Public reaction to him was swift and in 2 elections republicans won a majority and overthrew him replacing him with Louis.

Louis Philippe of France (1830-1848)

-"Bourgeois king,"
-King of France following Charles X. Abdicated the throne after Revolution of 1848 against threat of republican revolution (smelled his popularity was diminishing)
-Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's grandson took the throne after

Revolution of 1848: France

country becomes a republic and then goes back to an empire

Napoleon Bonaparte (1848-1852)

Took the throne, self-declaring himself emperor, after Louis Philippe, Napoleon's grandson

Revolution of 1848: Austria

Revolution in France sparked revolutions throughout Europe. The revolution in the Austrian Empire began in Hungary. An unstable coalition of revolutionaries forced Ferdinand I to capitulate and promise reforms and a liberal constitution. National aspirations and the rapid pace of radical reform undermined the revolution. Conservative forces regrouped and the army crushed the revolution. Metternich resigned and Francis Joseph was crowned emperor of Austria in December 1848

Revolution of 1848: Prussia

country tries to unify Germany but fails when leader takes back his offer to rule, reestablishing German Confederation

Italian ethnic nationalism

-Politically fragmented and under foreign domination; Young Italy movement; by emphasizing ethnic nationalism, they would become players in the European Concert; Pursued realpolitik;

Young Italy Movement

Group of Italian patriots dedicated to spreading ideas of nationalism.

Realpolitik

realistic politics based on the needs of the state

Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)

Architect of Italian unification in 1858; formed an alliance with France to attack Austrian control of Northern Italy; resulted in creation of constitutional monarchy under Piedmontese king; Supported Adam's Smiths economics and laid the foundation for industrialization of northwest Italy

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

Young Italy Republican; Italian revolutionary leader who led the fight to free Sicily and Naples from the Habsburg Empire; the lands were then peaceably annexed by Sardinia to produce a unified Italy.

King Wilhem I of Prussia (r. 1861-1888)

With his chancellor, Otto van Bismarck (in office 1862-1890), having no sympathies for constitutionalism, formed a coalition to keep the constitutionalists in the Prussian parliament in check. Made use of the ethnic nationalism in 1848 to enforce realpolitik

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire

Civil War (1861-1865)

deadliest war in American history; conflict between north (union) and south (confederacy); 11 southern slave states wanted to secede from Union

Consequences of the Civil War

1. Lincoln's policy of the primacy of National government over states' rights was guaranteed.
2. Slavery abolished and slaves granted full citizenship
3. Country rebuilt. Westward expansion. Remarkable growth, particularly in the creation of railroads.

Life for "free" blacks in America during 1877-1914

The South stripped Blacks of voting rights and enforced formal and informal segregation. Though they were technically free, they still, and still do have a long way to go.

Native Americans in the 1800s

Suffered unmitigated disasters; Taken away from their land as with settlers began to expand

Tecumseh (1768-1812) and Tenskwatawa (1775-1836)

Two Shawnee brothers who called for attacks on American frontier settlements.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

Passed by Congress under the Jackson administration, this act removed all Indians east of the Mississippi to an "Indian Territory" where they would be "permanently" housed.

Trail of Tears

The Cherokee Indians were forced to leave their lands. They traveled from North Carolina and Georgia through Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas-more than 800 miles (1,287 km)-to the Indian Territory. More than 4, 00 Cherokees died of cold, disease, and lack of food during the 116-day journey.

Reservation law in 1851

Federal government passed a law that supposedly protected the Native Americans by creating "reservations." Native Americans and their lands were exploited by the homestead act, railroad and city construction, and the destruction of the buffalo herds.

Homestead Act of 1862

this allowed a settler to acquire 160 acres by living on it for five years, improving it and paying about $30

Construction of the transcontinental railroad

1863-1869

Destruction of the buffalo herds

Buffalo hunting formed the principal livelihood of the Native Americans; Within 2 decades (1865-1884) fewer than 1000 buffalos remained

American Indian Wars (1862-1890)

Native Americans defended their lands tenaciously, but in vain.

Progressive Era

Rapid industrialization; time at the turn of the 20th century in which groups sought to reform America economically, socially, and politically

Progressive Era Reforms

1900-1920; Urban reform, political machines and influence elections, regulations, and new laws - utilities, welfare service for poor; State level reform, passed state labor laws, safety laws, and factory legislation to help US worker; Federal level, arbitration legislation, pure food and drug Act and antitrust legislation; standard oil; selling of liquor; women movement

Great Famine of 1845-1850

The potato blight in Ireland that caused mass starvation and immigration to the United States; first signs of Irish nationalism

Long Depression (1876-1896)

A time when Irish farmers received low prices for their crops but no reductions in rent; a "land war" thus ensued

Great Reform Bill of 1832

A limited reform of the British House of Commons and an expansion of the electorate to include a wider variety of the propertied classes. It laid the groundwork for further orderly reforms within the British constitutional system.

Repeal of Corn Laws 1846

Occurred due to Robert Peel and the Irish Famine. Peel had to open British ports to foreign grain to feed the starving Irish.

Second Reform Act (1867)

Gave voting rights to petit-bourgoisie (shopkeepers, clerks, well-paid workers), doubled electorate (1m→2m) under conservative leadership, as they realized they needed new voters to survive

Romanticism

an intellectual and artistic movement that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

German Philosopher and historian (1770-1831) who postulated the freedom of the mind and spirit. He believed in the Hegelian Dialectic, that ideas are the driving force of history, and in history being progressive. Even though Marx and Engels disagreed with the Hegelian Dialectic they respected Hegel.

dialectic

the art of investigating or discussing the truth by discussion; In Hegel's thought, the belief that a higher truth is comprehended by a continuous unification of opposites

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)

the most famous composer in music history, changes the purpose and function of the symphony, embraces Enlightenment philosophy and as a romantic sought to express what made humans human, i.e. emotions; Pastoral Symphony

Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)

french composer and conductor who wrote 1st text book on orchestration...a romantic; Symphanie phantasique

Beethoven and Berlioz

pioneered the new genre of program music; emphasized passion, emotional intensity, and the freedom of the musical spirit over traditional form

Jane Austen (1775-1817)

English novelist in romantic period; known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Her plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary, have earned her acclaim among critics and scholars.
Known for: Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, Emma

Edgar Allan Poe

American writer in romantic period; known especially for his macabre poems, such as "The Raven" (1845), and short stories, including "The Fall of the House of Usher" (1839).

Realism

A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be

Auguste Compte (1798-1857)

published The Positive Philosophy (1830-1842); arranged world history in three successive stages: theological, metaphysical, and scientific; Philosophy was positivism

Positvism

the belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific observation

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

19th century English writer and social critic. Realist. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent his writings, such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters.
Best known for: David Copperfield, A Christmas Carol, Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, Great Expectations.

the Enlightenment

A cultural upheaval in which the rising urban middle classes embraced the New Sciences and their philosophical interpretations, which provided both the intellectual ammunition for the revolutions and the inspiration for creative movements of romanticism and realism; The three constitutional revolutions (American, French and Haitian) were a part of this; Based largely on Descartes's concept of reality consisting of the two separate substances of matter and mind

Glorious Revolution (1688)

The bloodless coup in 1688 in England when James II (a Catholic) gave up the throne and his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange (of the Netherlands) - both Protestants - replaced James II to reign jointly. No Catholic monarch has reigned in England since; one outcome of this was the curbing of the monarch's divine rights.

Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Conflict fought in Europe and its overseas colonies; in North America, known as the French and Indian War; The American and French revolutions were consequences of this

Conditions for the American Revolution

After Britain won the Seven Years War, they were left deeply in debt and so they had to raise taxes domestically and overseas; Britain had to employ troops because of the growth of the colonies, and to pay for these troops they had to impose the Stamp Act in 1765; Britain failed to strengthen administration of the colonies and was inept in imposing taxes

Stamp Act (1765)

The new tax imposed by the British to the 13 colonies in America which forced everyone to pay a tax for the use of paper for any purpose; This tax was was imposed for upkeep of the new troops the British had to employ because of America's rapid growth; Withdrew in 1766 due to uprising however levied more indirect taxes on other commodities

Sons and Daughters of Liberty

Secret society of urban lower-middle ranks who were created to protest the Stamp Act and other unfair taxation; Boycotted British goods and promoted homespun textiles

Indirect British taxes

Tea; Taxed to subsidy to keep the bankrupt East India Co. afloat and had nothing to do with America or Britain's debt; led to protests

Boston Tea Party

A 1773 protest against British taxes in which Boston colonists disguised as Mohawks dumped valuable tea into Boston Harbor.