Memory & Thinking: Key Concepts and Cognitive Heuristics

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.

Encoding

Getting information into the brain so it's meaningful. Example: studying for a test.

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time. Example: remembering a name later.

Retrieval

Getting information out of storage. Example: recalling an answer on a test.

Sensory Memory

Brief, immediate recording of sensory info. Example: seeing a sparkler trail.

Short-Term (Working) Memory

Holds a few items briefly before storing or forgetting (7 ± 2 items). Example: remembering a phone number while dialing.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent, limitless storehouse of knowledge and experiences.

Working Memory

Active processing of incoming info and long-term memory. Example: linking what you read to prior knowledge.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful units. Example: 76 → 1492 / 2025 / 1776.

Mnemonics

Memory aids using imagery or organization. Example: "HOMES" for the Great Lakes.

Hierarchies

Organizing info into broad concepts and smaller categories.

Distributed Practice (Spacing Effect)

Spaced studying → better retention.

Testing Effect

Retrieving info improves memory more than rereading.

Shallow Processing

Encoding on a basic level (appearance/sound).

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaning → better retention.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Facts and experiences we consciously recall. Example: remembering graduation.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Skills or conditioned responses without conscious recall. Example: riding a bike.

Semantic Memory

Facts and general knowledge. Example: Paris is France's capital.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences or events. Example: first day of school.

Hippocampus

Processes explicit memories; the brain's "save button." Example: remembering a name.

Cerebellum

Stores implicit/classically conditioned memories. Example: blinking at a tone.

Basal Ganglia

Involved in motor movement & procedural memory. Example: riding a bike.

Amygdala

Emotion-related memory formation. Example: remembering a frightening event vividly.

Memory Consolidation

Process of transferring short-term to long-term memory.

Flashbulb Memory

Clear memory of an emotionally significant event. Example: remembering 9/11.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections through practice ("practice makes perfect").

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations. Example: seeing "yellow" makes you think "banana."

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall is better in the same environment as learning. Example: testing in the same room.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same emotional or physical state. Example: remembering sad events when sad.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall experiences consistent with current mood.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best. Example: remembering first and last people on a list.

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

Memory fades rapidly at first, then levels off over time.

Retention Curve

Shows how much info is retained with time.

Anterograde Amnesia

Can't form new memories after trauma. Example: Clive Wearing.

Retrograde Amnesia

Can't recall memories from before trauma.

Proactive Interference

Old info disrupts new learning. Example: calling new partner by ex's name.

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts old memories. Example: forgetting old password after learning new one.

Cognition

Mental processes involving thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept

A mental category for grouping similar items. Example: "bird."

Prototype

Best example of a concept. Example: robin as typical bird.

Schema

Mental framework that organizes info. Example: your idea of a "classroom."

Algorithm

Logical rule that guarantees a solution but takes time. Example: checking every aisle for oatmeal.

Heuristic

Mental shortcut; faster but not guaranteed. Example: only checking cereal aisle for oatmeal.

Insight

Sudden realization of a solution ("aha" moment).

Representative Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how well something fits a prototype. Example: assuming a poetry lover is an English major.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: fearing plane crashes after seeing one on the news.