ps chinal definitions

less developed countries

Definition: Countries with low levels of economic development, income, industrialization, and human well-being.
Example: Haiti
IR relevance: are central to debates about global inequality, foreign aid, development policy,

Infrastructure

Definition: Basic physical and institutional structures needed for economic and social activity (roads, electricity, water, telecoms, financial systems).
Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative funding ports and railways abroad.
IR relevance: shapes development, foreign investment, and geopolitical influence between states.

primary products

Definition: Raw materials and agricultural goods that are minimally processed.
Example: Coffee exports from Ethiopia.
IR relevance: Many developing states depend on primary exports, making them vulnerable to price swings in global markets.

oligopoly

Definition: A market dominated by a small number of firms.
Example: Boeing and Airbus dominating the global aircraft market.
IR relevance: affect international trade, competition, and statecorporate relations.

terms of trade

Definition: The relationship between a country’s export prices to import prices.
Example: If oil prices fall, oil-exporting states’ terms of trade worsen.
IR relevance: Determines whether states gain or lose economically from global trade.

import-subsidizing industrialization

Definition: Policies that encourage domestic production instead of imports using tariffs, subsidies, and state ownership.
Example: Latin American countries in the mid-20th century.
IR relevance: Shows how states try to escape dependency on wealthy countries.

export-oriented industrialization

Definition: Policies promoting manufacturing for export markets. pursued in the mid-1960s by several East Asian countries,
Example: South Korea exporting electronics.
IR relevance: Explains East Asia’s economic success and integration into global markets.

group of 77

A coalition of developing countries in the UN, formed in 1964 with 77 members, that seeks changes to the international economic order to favor the developing world. It has grown to over 130 members but retains the original name.

Example: Coordinated voting at the UN General Assembly
IR relevance: Demonstrates collective action by weaker states in global institutions.

commodity cartels

Definition
Associations of producers of commodities raw materials and agricultural products that restrict world supply of their products and thereby cause the price of their goods to rise

Producer alliances that restrict supply to raise prices.

Example: OPEC limiting oil production
IR relevance: Shows how states use economic coordination to gain power.

international law

Definition: Rules governing state behavior internationally., status of law
Example: Law of the Sea.
IR relevance: Explains cooperation, conflict resolution, and legitimacy in world politics.

customary international law

Definition: Law formed through consistent state practice and belief.
Example: Diplomatic immunity.
IR relevance: Shows how norms become binding without treaties.

international humanitarian law

Definition: Laws regulating warfare to protect civilians.
Example: Geneva Conventions.
IR relevance: Governs conduct in war and war crimes accountability.

obligation

how legally binding a rule is
The degree to which states are legally bound by an international rule. High- rules must be performed in good faith and, if breached, require reparations to the injured party.

Example: Binding treaty commitments
IR relevance: Explains why some international rules are taken more seriously than others.

precision

Definition
The degree to which international legal obligations are fully specified. More precise rules narrow the scope for reasonable interpretation.

Example: Exact emission limits versus vague climate goals
IR relevance: Precision affects enforcement and compliance.

delegation

The degree to which third parties, such as courts, arbitrators, or mediators, are given authority to implement, interpret, and apply international legal rules; to resolve disputes over the rules; and to make additional rules.

Example: WTO dispute settlement panels
IR relevance: Shows how states give authority to international institutions.

norms

Standards of behavior for actors with a given identity; norms define what actions are “right” or appropriate under particular circumstances.

Example: against using chemical weapons
IR relevance: nfluence behavior beyond material power.

norm entrepreneurs

Definition: Actors who promote new norms.
Example: NGOs campaigning to ban landmines.
IR relevance: Highlights nonstate influence in global politics.

transnational advocacy networks

Definition: NGOs and activists working across borders.
Example: Amnesty International.
IR relevance: Shows globalization of activism and pressure on states.

norm life cycle

A three-stage model of how norms diffuse within a population and achieve a taken-for-granted status.

Example: The spread of women’s rights norms
IR relevance: Explains how ideas become international standards.

private authority boomerang model

Definition: Nonstate actors shaping rules; NGOs pressure foreign allies to influence domestic governments.
Example: Environmental NGOs targeting multinational corporations.
IR relevance: Demonstrates indirect power in global governance.

human rights

The rights possessed by all individuals by virtue of being human, regardless of their status as citizens of particular states or members of a group or organization.

Example: Freedom from torture
IR relevance: Challenges the idea that states can treat citizens however they want.

universal declaration of human rights

A declaration, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, that is defined as a “common standard of achievement for all peoples” and forms the foundation of modern human rights law.

Example: Referenced by courts and activists worldwide
IR relevance: Foundation of the global human rights regime.

international covenant on civil and political rights

The agreement, completed in 1966 and in force from 1976, details the basic civil and political rights of individuals and nations. The ICCPR and ICESCR together are known as the ‘twin covenants.”

Example: Protects freedom of speech
IR relevance: Makes civil rights legally binding internationally.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

The agreement, completed in 1966 and in force from 1976, that specifies the basic economic, social, and cultural rights of individuals and nations. The ICCPR and ICESCR together are known as the ‘twin covenants.”

Example: Right to education
IR relevance: Expands human rights beyond political freedoms.

international bill of rights

The UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR collectively. Together, these three agreements form the core of the international human rights regime.

IR relevance: Serves as the backbone of international human rights law.

nonderogable rights

Rights that cannot be suspended for any reason, including in cases of social or public emergency.

Example: Freedom from torture
IR relevance: Limits state power even during crises.

prisoners of conscience

ndividuals imprisoned solely for the peaceful expression of their beliefs. Term coined by human rights org Amnesty Intl

Example: Political dissidents jailed for protests
IR relevance: Highlights repression and international advocacy.

individual petition

A right that permits individuals to petition appropriate international legal bodies directly if they believe a state has violated their rights.

Example: Filing a complaint with the UN Human Rights Committee
IR relevance: Gives individuals access to international law.

international criminal court

A court of last resort for human rights cases that possesses jurisdiction only if the accused is a national of a state party, the crime took place on the territory of a state party, or the UN Security Council has referred the case to the prosecutor.

IR relevance: Enforces accountability beyond national courts.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

the main UN treaty for global climate action, established in 1992, aiming to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) levels to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system, allowing ecosystems and economies to adapt sustainably.
Paris Agreement is a part of this

IR relevance: Framework for global environmental cooperation.

Paris agreement

Agreement is “bottoms up” allowing each country to pick their own contributions
Adopted by 195 parties
The Paris Agreement is a landmark 2015 international treaty to combat climate change, legally binding nearly all nations to limit global warming to well below 2°C (preferably 1.5°C) above pre-industrial levels by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and building resilience

IR relevance: Shows how cooperation works when enforcement is weak.

tragedy of the commons

A problem that occurs when a resource is open to all, without limit. No one has an incentive to conserve, because others would use the resource in the meantime, so the resource suffers degradation.

Example: Overfishing in international waters
IR relevance: Explains why international cooperation is necessary.

common pool resources

Goods that are available to everyone, but such that one user's consumption of the good reduces the amount available for others. Common-pool resources are rival but nonexcludable.

Example: Fisheries
IR relevance: Central to environmental conflicts.

non excludable goods

Goods that, if available to be consumed by one actor, cannot be prevented from being consumed by other actors as well.
Clean air

IR relevance: Creates free-rider problems in global politics.

nonrival goods

Goods for which consumption by one actor does not diminish the quantity available for others.

Example: Scientific knowledge
IR relevance: Explains global public goods.

kyoto protocol

An amendment to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005, that established specific targets for reducing emissions of carbon and five other greenhouse gases through 2020.

IR relevance: Illustrates limits of binding agreements.

montreal protocol

an international treaty, signed in 1987, that is designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of CFCs and other chemical compounds.

IR relevance: Example of successful international cooperation.

cap and trade system

sets an overall limit on emissions, which is then lowered over time to reduce pollutants released into the atmosphere. Firms can sell “credits” when they emit less than their allocation or must buy from others when they emit more than their allocation

Example: European Union Emissions Trading System
IR relevance: Market-based solution to global problems.

national determined contribution

The commitment each party to the Paris Agreement makes as to how it will contribute to reducing the threat of global warming.

IR relevance: Reflects balance between sovereignty and cooperation.

externalities

Costs or benefits resulting from an actor's decision that affect stakeholders other than that actor. When an externality exists, the decision maker does not bear all the costs or reap all the gains from the action.

Example: Pollution crossing borders
IR relevance: Justifies international regulation.

sovereignty

The expectation that states have legal and political supremacy - or ultimate authority - within their territorial boundaries

Example: A government making its own laws without outside interference
IR relevance: Sovereignty is the foundation of the international system and explains why states resist external control.

interstate war

A war in which the main participants are states

Example: World War II
IR relevance: Interstate war is a core concern of IR because it involves direct conflict between sovereign states.

civil war

A war in which the main participants are within the same state, such as the government and a rebel group.

Example: The Syrian Civil War
IR relevance: Civil wars often draw in outside states, making them international issues.

security dilemma

A dilemma that arises when efforts that states make to defend themselves cause other states to feel less secure; can lead to arms races and war because of the fear of being attacked.

Example: Nuclear arms race during the Cold War
IR relevance: Explains why conflict can occur even when no state wants war

crisis bargaining

A bargaining interaction in which at least one actor threatens to use force in the event that its demands are not met.

Example: Cuban Missile Crisis
IR relevance: Shows how states use threats to gain concessions without fighting.

coercive diplomacy

The use of threats to advance specific demands in a bargaining interaction.

Example: Economic sanctions backed by military threats
IR relevance: Demonstrates how force can be used short of war.

resolve

The willingness of an actor to endure costs in order to acquire a particular good.

Example: Ukraine continuing to fight despite high costs
IR relevance: Resolve affects bargaining outcomes and deterrence.

credibility

Believability. A credible threat is a threat that the target believes will be carried out. A credible commitment is a commitment or promise that the recipient believes will be honored.

Example: U.S. security guarantees to NATO allies
IR relevance: Credibility determines whether threats and promises work.

brinkmanship

A strategy in which adversaries take actions that increase the risk of accidental war, with the hope that the other will “blink” (lose its nerve) first and make concessions.
United States and Soviet Union in the Cold war, nobody wanted to back down

IR relevance: Explains high-risk strategies during intense rivalries.

audience costs

Negative repercussions for failing to follow through on a threat or to honor a commitment
China repeatedly claiming to liberate Taiwan from the nationalist Chinese forces in 1949 led analysts in the US to discount trust in China

IR relevance: Shows how domestic politics affect foreign policy credibility.

preventative war

A war fought with the intention of preventing an adversary from becoming stronger in the future. Preventive wars arise because a state whose power is increasing cannot commit not to exploit that power in future bargaining interactions.

Example: Hypothetical attack on a rising rival before it becomes dominant
IR relevance: Explains why power shifts increase conflict risk.

preemptive war

A war fought with the anticipation that an attack by the other side is imminent

Example: Israel’s attack at the start of the Six-Day War
IR relevance: Highlights timing and information in war decisions.

democratic peace

Definition (unchanged):
The observation that there are few, if any, clear cases of war between mature democratic states.

Example: The U.S. and Canada not going to war
IR relevance: Central theory linking domestic politics to peace.

accountability

The ability to punish our reward leaders for the decisions they make, as when frequent, fair elections enable voters to hold elected officials responsible for their actions by granting or withholding access to political office

Example: Voting leaders out after failed wars
IR relevance: Explains differences in foreign policy across regimes.

balance of power

A situation in which the military capabilities of two states or groups of states are roughly equal.

Example: NATO balancing against the Soviet Union
IR relevance: Core concept for stability and deterrence.

bandwagoning

A strategy in which states join forces with the stronger side in a conflict.

Example: Smaller states aligning with a regional hegemon
IR relevance: Explains alliance choices of weaker states.

entrapment

The condition of being dragged into an unwanted war because of the opportunistic actions of an ally.
Italy’s alliance with N G

IR relevance: Shows risks of alliance commitments.

collective security organizations

try to govern relations among their members, providing them with tools for peaceful conflict resolution and mechanisms for organizing collective responses to acts of aggression.
EX: UN - first place people go to look for international politics advice

IR relevance: Illustrates institutional approaches to peace.

peace enforcement operations

A military operation in which force is used to make and/or enforce peace among warring parties that have not agreed to end their fighting.
UN attempting to end civil war in Somalia

IR relevance: Shows limits of neutrality in conflict resolution.

peacekeeping operation

An operation in which troops and observers are deployed to monitor a cease-fire or peace agreement. Often invited
Liberia -

IR relevance: Demonstrates cooperative conflict management.

terrorism

The use or threatened use of violence against noncombatant targets by individuals or nonstate groups for political ends.
Example: ISIS is a terrorist group in the Middle East that has launched many attacks in Iraq and Syria with the goal of establishing a caliphate.

IR relevance: Major security threat shaping global cooperation.

asymmetrical warfare

armed conflict between actors with highly unequal military capabilities such as when rebel groups or terrorists fight strong states
Example: During the Iraq war after Saddam Hussein’s fall, the United States fought insurgent groups from Iraq. The insurgent groups utilized guerrilla warfare to combat the United States’ military power.

IR relevance: Explains why powerful states struggle in conflicts.

separatist

An actor that seeks to create an independent state on territory carved from an existing state.
Example: Certain groups in Kashmir wish to break away from India and join Pakistan or form their own nation.

IR relevance: Separatism challenges sovereignty and borders.

irredentist

rebel groups seeking to join their land to a neighboring state
Example: China seeks to annex Taiwan, as it believes that the two share cultural history.

IR relevance: Explains territorial disputes between states.

proxy wars

Conflicts in which two opposing states fight” by supporting opposite sides in a war, such as the government and rebels in a third state.
US giving supplies to South Korea and South Vietnam while Soviet Union gave supplies to North Korea and North Vietnam,
Example: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union and China supported communist rebels in South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the United States supported the governments of those states.

IR relevance: Shows how great powers avoid direct war.

comparative advantage

The ability of a country or firm to produce a particular good or service more efficiently than it can produce other goods or services, such that its resources are most efficiently employed in this activity. The comparison is to the efficiency of other economic activities that the actor might undertake given all the products it can produce—not to the efficiency of other countries or firms.
Example: The United States has a comparative advantage in capital-based production, so it specializes in production and exportation of airplanes.

IR relevance: Explains why international trade benefits states and encourages cooperation.

absolute advantage

The ability of a country or firm to produce more of a particular good or service than other countries or firms can produce with the same amount of effort and resources.
Example: Saudi Arabia has an absolute advantage in oil production, as it has greater access to resources than other nations do.

IR relevance: Shows how natural resources shape trade and power.

protectionism

The imposition of barriers to restrict imports.
Example: The U.S. placing tariffs on imported steel to protect its scarce factors of production.

IR relevance: Protectionism affects trade relations and can cause conflict.

reciprocity

n international trade relations, a mutual agreement to lower tariffs and other barriers to trade. Reciprocity involves an implicit or explicit arrangement for one government to exchange trade-policy concessions with another.

Example: Two countries agreeing to lower tariffs simultaneously
IR relevance: Encourages cooperation and trust in trade.

world trade organization

An institution created in 1995 to succeed the GATT and to govern international trade relations. The WTO encourages and polices the multilateral reduction of barriers to trade, and it oversees the resolution of trade disputes.

IR relevance: Central institution regulating global trade.

regional trade agreements

greements among three or more countries in a region to reduce barriers to trade among themselves.

Example: European Union
IR relevance: Shows regional economic integration.

foreign direct investment

Investment in a foreign country via the acquisition of a local facility or the establishment of a new facility. Direct investors maintain managerial control of the foreign operation.

Example: Toyota building factories in the U.S.
IR relevance: Connects global markets and state policies.

world bank

An important international institution that provides loans at below-market interest rates to developing countries, typically to enable them to carry out development projects.

IR relevance: Influences development and domestic policy.

austerity

The application of policies to reduce consumption, typically by cutting government spending, raising taxes, and restricting wages.

Example: IMF-imposed austerity measures
IR relevance: Shows economic constraints imposed by global institutions.

international monetary fund

A major international economic institution established in 1944 to manage international monetary relations. It has gradually reoriented itself to focus on the international financial system, especially debt and currency crises.

IR relevance: Central to global financial stability.

multinational corporation

- An enterprise that operates in a number of countries, with production or service facilities outside its country of origin.

Example: Apple
IR relevance: MNCs influence global trade and politics.

exchange rate

The price at which one currency is exchanged for another

Example: Dollar to euro exchange rate
IR relevance: Affects trade and investment.

central bank

The institution that regulates monetary conditions in a country’s economy, typically by raising or lowering interest rates and the quantity of money in circulation.

Example: Federal Reserve
IR relevance: Shapes domestic and international finance.

fixed exchange rate

An exchange-rate policy under which a government commits itself to keeping its currency at or around a specific value relative to another currency or a commodity, such as gold.

Example: Currency pegged to the U.S. dollar
IR relevance: Limits monetary flexibility but promotes stability.

Bretton woods monetary system

The monetary order negotiated among the World War II Allies in 1944, which lasted until the 1970s and which was based on a U.S. dollar tied to gold. Other currencies were fixed to the dollar but were permitted to adjust their exchange rates.

It established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to promote economic stability and growth.