Behavior & Motivation: Exam 1 (Levine)

Psychology LEVINE 3320

motivation serves as an intervening variable in the example of running rats. define this term.

it serves to link a stimulus and a response and helps to relate the two.

contrast motivation with learning

motivation temporarily affects behavior whereas learning is a more permanent change in behavior

while the occurrence of overt behavior is generally taken as evidence of motivation, its absence does not necessarily mean what?

that no motivation is present

both casual observation and laboratory research suggest that ____ behavior is more motivated that ____ behavior.

energetic; hesitant

vigorous responses do not always mean high motivation. give the example from the book that demonstrates this fact.

teaching a rat that the correct response to obtain food is to push down on a lever with a certain amount of force

watching "forceful" rat (rat that keeps aggressively pulling lever) might lead someone to believe that the rat is highly motivated, but the vigor might be due to the rat learning to respond forcefully in order to obtain the food.

What is the main difference between the nomothetic vs idiographic approach?

nomothetic: studies groups of people and animals and determines how they are similar

idiographic: proposes we can understand behavior by looking at how people differ from each other

what are the assumptions of the mechanistic approach?

changes in specific factors activate circuits that motivate the organism to engage in appropriate behavior

what are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?

that the manner in which information is interpreted influences motive states

four main categories to describe levels of analysis

physiological, individual, social, philosophical

what has direct manipulation of the brain by electrical stimulation shown us?

that brain circuits exist that may activate when reward occurs

activity of large groups of brain cells can be recorded by ____, while small groups and single neurons can be recorded with _____ _____.

electroencephalograph (EEG), depth electrodes

if we detect behavioral changes in several individuals during an experiment, what might it be proper to presume?

there may be some kind of nomothetic law

descartes idea of ____ states that humans are motivated by both body (or _____) and soul (or ____).

dualism; instincts, will

the two sources of ideas, according to Locke, are the conversion of _____ into ____, and _____.

sensation, perception, reflection

what is the importance of Muller's doctrine of specific nerve energies (2 reasons)?

implied that nerves send specific coded messages rather than allowing for the flow of animal spirits; that these codes determine the content of the information

though Gall's phrenology is no longer useful, there is value in his emphasis on what?

the localization of function within the brain

According to behaviorists, motivation ofbehavior results from consequences of previousbehavior. Explain. (p. 20)

What does the drive theory propose? (p. 20)

According to Dawkins, why do livingorganisms exist?

To survive and replicate genes

Differences between mitosis vs meosis

mitosis--> a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells

meosis--> 2 specialized cells combine to form a new cell that includes genetic information from both cells

why is the survival of the individual so 'viciously and tenaciously defended,' according to the authors?

the survival of the individual's genetic information is dependent on the successful reproduction of that individual

which is the more fundamental process: reproduction or metabolism

reproduction (not metabolism)

what is the first advantage of sexual, rather than asexual, reproduction?

produces a recombination of the genes of the two parents thus providing offspring that possess new genetic combinations a greater chance for survival (of the genes) in a varying environment

second advantage of sexual reproduction is that it can allow _____ of genetic material within the _____ _____.

"repair," gene pool

What is the evolutionary advantage of sexual behavior being pleasurable

provides a mean for which the chances of sexual reproduction are increased

what is one reason that 'safe sex' is so difficult to sell to men especially?

it reduces their pleasurable sensations

why is the male red spider's behavior considered to be adaptive?

because by becoming a meal for the female spider after sexual behavior has occurred, his genetic information is more likely to continue

the aggressive behavior of many mothers when offspring are endangered can be viewed as a tendency to _____.

risk one's life for the next generation

How do tropical mammals differ from those in temperate zones?c

tropical mammals- sexual receptivity is year round

temperate mammals- seasonal changes make successful reproduction at certain times of the year

the authors suggest that cyclic sexual receptivity evolved for a particular reason. What is it?

to restrict sexual behavior to those times when successful reproduction was most likely to occur

what is the unusual result of the behavior of species (such as humans and bonobos) that engage in sex for non-reproductive reasons?

the chances of living long enough to successfully reproduce increase

the interaction of two things leads to the process called natural selection. What are they?

one's genetic makeup and the environment

natural selection influences three characteristics of genes: ___, ___, and ___.

viability, fertility, fecundity

what is sexual selection?

the choice of the sexual partner is made by the female

occurs when there is competition for mates

a human female has about ____ chances to pass her genetic information between the ages of ___ and ___.

less than 400; 13; 45

what is the developmental period that is of such concern to females?

period during which the offspring must be maintained before they are capable of maintaining themselves

What is the difference between females' mating strategies vs males' mating strategy

females-look for a mate who will provide her offspring with the greatest chance of survival

males-mate with as many females as possible

to what type of man does evolutionary theory suggest women be attracted?

who possess the resources to support them and any children they produce; resource accumulation & investment in the young

if women are competing for men, what does evolutionary theory suggest that women will do?

they will engage in behaviors that enhance their appearance

william james emphasized three important components in human behavior? what are those 3?

instincts, emotions, thoughts

Name the three "super-theories" that were the dominant approaches to motivation at different times in history, in chronological order (3320basics, Slide 15)

will, instinct, drive

Why did the will theory of motivation decline? (3320basics, Slide 18)

will can't really be defined or observed

Describe one observation that challenged the theory that reward was equivalent to drive reduction. (3320basics, Slide 24)

headonism can be separate from homeostasis. for example, anorexics don't eat despite drive.

Name two psychological facts that evolution (i.e., maximizing survival or reproductive success) might not account for. (Evolution, Slide 2)

curiosity and need for stimulation

when one human recognizes another, a specific, universal pattern of behavior occurs. what are they?

smiles and raises the eyebrows

what is the textbook's definition of an instinct?

a genetically programmed bit of behavior that occurs when circumstances are appropriate and that requires no learning of the behavior

3 things william james believe about instincts

instincts are similar to reflexes, are elicited by sensory stimuli, occurs blindly the first time

2 principles james used to explain the variability of instincts

-habit (learning) can inhibit an instinct

-some instincts are transitory, useful only at certain times or during certain developmental periods

mcdougall saw every instinct as having 3 components

-cognitive - knowing of an object that can satisfy the instinct

-affective - feeling that the object arouses in the organism

-conative: striving toward or away from object

kuo insisted that instincts are not the motive forces underlying behavior because _________________________.

behavior is aroused by external stimuli

tolman's emphasis was on the behavioral ends toward which the behavior is directed. what did he believe?

that those end goals are fixed or instinctive but that the means of obtaining them can vary and are thus modifiable through learning

what is the difference between consummatory behavior vs appetitive behavior

consummatory- innate and stereotyped; responding to stimuli

Appetitive behavior- subject to modification through learning; searching for stimuli

what do ASE and IRM stand for?

ASE- action specific energy

IRM- innate releasing mechanism

If ringed plover are given a choice between their own brown spotted eggs and other black and white spotted eggs, which do they choose? (p. 40)

black and white

what do we call stimuli that release behavior more effectively than the normal stimulus?

supernormal key stimuli or super-optimal key stimuli

fixed action patterns are species-specific motor patters that are ____, ____, & _____.

rigid, stereotypes, "blind"

example of intention movement in humans

shifting weight when leaving

4 categories of conflict behavior

successive ambivalent

simultaneous ambivalent

redirected

displacement

define imprinting

An area where learning and instinct intermingle; offspring form attachments to caregiver

what did lorenz cite as the three major characteristics of imprinting? when, how long, and how

occurs during a very limited, critical period in organism's life

permanent & irreversible

independent of reward

what do frog eye receptors respond to, and what response is released by the stimuli?

small, roundish, moving objects; tongue snapping out to grasp the potential prey

what difference does longevity of an organism make, according to mayr?

short life spans - have more closed programs

longer-lived organisms tend to have more open programs

4 facial expressions not learned and cross-cultural

smiling

laughing

weeping

frowning

what is the eyebrow flick and when is it seen?

lifting of the eyebrow upon greeting an acquaintance (appeasement gesture)

hager and elkman believe that their experimental results show that the face is ________.

a long-distance transmitter of emotion

what features tend to release a cuddling instinct in humans?

chubby cheeks, large eyes, small mouth, and large head

what did eibl-eibesfeldt suggest that kissing actually is?

ritualized form of feeding behavior derived from the feeding of an infant

purpose of a stare in primates

used as a threat gesture

what happens in the interspecific aggression called mobbing behavior?

the prey turn the tables on the predator and attack it as a group

when and why do male animals sometimes kill young of their own species?

will sometimes kill the young of a female that they succeed in taking over - better chance of survival

serious injury from intraspecific conflict is avoided with what behaviors? give an example.

appeasement gestures; male cichlid fish submits by folding its fins and swimming away

what does cosmides suggest was the origin of war?

as a way for men to gain increased access to women

why is it advantages to feed in a group?

groups provide more protection from predators

The basic idea underlying arousal theory is that we can understand motivation by viewing it as a ____________________________ ranging from low levels of arousal (________________________) to very high levels (_________________________). (p. 62)

continuum; sleep or coma; stress

Describe the relationship between arousal and performance as seen in the Yerkes-Dodson law. (p. 62-63)

performance increases with arousal, but after a certain point of arousal, performance decreases

Based on the differing results obtained by Bremer's two procedures, it was believed that arousal level is controlled by a brain structure located specifically where? (p. 63-64)

a brain strucutre located in the Pons

I see beta waves on your EEG. What behaviors are you likely to be exhibiting? (p. 64)

alert, attentive, aroused

What was the result when Lindsley cut the RAS? (p. 64)

permanent sleep

What is motivation for Hebb? (p. 65)

activation of the cortex by the RAS (reticular activating system) motivates reaction

How are Lacey's multiple types of arousal seen? (p. 67)

Behavioral: indicated by a responding organism

Autonomic: shown by changes in bodily functions

Cortical: evidenced by desynchronized, fast brainwaves

One major problem with arousal theory is the lack of a strong relationship between measures of three types of arousal. What are the three? (p. 67)

Behavioral, Autonomic, and Cortical

How do Webb and Agnew explain their idea that sleep is adaptive for organisms? (p. 68)

it keeps organisms from responding at unnecessary or dangerous times

It is currently believed that sleep is controlled by at least two separate processes. What are these two? (p. 68-69)

a homeostatic process, and circadian rhythms

What happens to sleep patterns in the elderly? (p. 69)

there's more variability- go to sleep earlier, take more daytime naps

Stage 5 of sleep ... describe the EEG pattern and gives the more common name for this stage. (p. 69-70)

mix of theta, beta, and alpha waves. REM

What do researchers believe is the function of NREM sleep? (p. 71)

restorative function, gives the body a chance to rebuild resources

What differences are seen in the dreams associated with REM and NREM sleep? (p. 71)

REM-bizarre, emotionally loaded, or lifelike

NREM- nonemotional, random thoughts

How much time does the average person spend in dreaming per night? (p. 72)

1hr 40mins (100mins)

What two things seem to affect whether we remember a dream? (p. 72)

-salience (how noticeable)

-when the dream took place

How does a full night without sleep affect depressed individuals? (p. 74)

has an antidepressant effect on some

Goats, cats, rats - what did Pappenheimer do and what were the results? (p. 78)

took cerebrospinal fluid from sleep deprived goats and put it into cats and rats. the injected cats and rats became drowsy.

What accounts for the arousal properties of coffee and tea? (p. 78)

has active ingredients that block the receptors for adenosine

What is the relationship between REM sleep and memory, according to Greenberg? (p. 79)

helps with consolidation of memory

What does Selye note about the "complete freedom from stress"? (p. 82)

the only freedom is death

What did Selye notice were the common symptoms of most diseases? (p. 84)

looks and feels sick, coated tongue

complains of aches and pains in the joints

loss of appetite

What are the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome? (p. 84-85)

alarm, resistance, exhaustion

What is the function of inflammation? (p. 85)

provides a barrier to limit the spread of a stressor

What is the basic idea underlying life change research? (p. 86)

the events of our lives influence our susceptibility to physical and mental illness.

What time-related fact have researchers noted about life changes and illness? (p. 86)

raises susceptibility to illness

In one Holmes and Masuda study, _____________ of people scoring above 300 on their scale had a major health change within two years, as did ______________ of those scoring between 200 and 299, and _____________ of those from 150 to 199. (p. 87)

86%; 48%; 33%