forensic psych

what is the top-down approach to offender profiling?

A forensic psychologist will use prior knowledge and evidence gathered to make a profile for the offender of a crime. This method is used to narrow down suspects rather than catch them.

what are the 6 main stages of the top-down process?

1. profiling inputs

2. decision process models

3. crime assessment

4. criminal profile

5. crime assessment again

6. apprehension

Describe the top-down process (6 marks AO1)

The top-down approach to offender profiling was developed to solve murder cases in the USA. It involves designing a profile of the offender based on the dynamics of the crime. The profile is developed through 6 stages. Firstly, information from the crime scene is taken as well as any relevant background information. This information is then organised into meaningful patterns by the profiler, so that they can determine how the offender carries out their crimes. With this information, the profiler assigns the crime and offender as organised or disorganised. If organised, the crime may have been planned and the victim may have been targeted. If disorganised, it tends to be unplanned and there may be some clues around the body. 

The profiler then makes the profile on the offender, which includes hypotheses about their background and mannerisms. This information will be important to help catch them and during interviews. The profile is then sent to the police, and any suspects matching the profile are interviewed. If no suspect is found, the profile is remade and they try again. If the suspect is found, each stage of the profiling process is evaluated to make sure no mistakes were made.

Strength of the top-down approach

Police officers find it useful

Copson found that 82% of police officers said the technique is useful and 90% would use it again. Although, the approach may not lead to convictions, it can help provide a different perspective to the investigation and prevent wrongful convictions. 

However, the police officers may have only said this because they have not been exposed to other methods of investigation, which could be more effective than the top-down approach. Some of them may not have even been involved with murder cases, which may make their opinion/experience invalid.

Weaknesses of the top-down approach

The basis of the method may be flawed

Profilers use data that was taken during interviews by Hazelwood and Douglas with 36 serial killers to generate their own profiles for cases they are currently working on. However this information may be unreliable as it was taken from people who are known for being manipulative. Furthermore, their modus operandi may be different to others and the information is outdated.

Regardless, the six-stage process does allow for improvements to be made to it - it is not fixed

Profiles are unscientific and may mislead investigations

It can be argued that profilers do little more than psychics, who often have experience in ‘reading’ behaviour. Top-down profiling has no scientific basis and its believability can be explained by the Barnum effect. Jackson and Bekerian suggested that smart offenders have understood the profiling procedure, and may leave misleading clues to cause a fake profile to be made. 

Therefore, police and courts must not fully place their faith in profiles. It also raises the question whether profiling should remain a private method of investigation. 

However, profiling is combined with other investigative methods, so it’s not that bad.

what is the bottom-up approach to offender profiling

The approach used in the UK. It was developed by David Canter. This approach looks for consistencies in offenders’ behaviour and compares this to data in computer databases.

These statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics of an offender.

Features of the bottom-up approach to offender profiling

Investigative psychology

• Interpersonal coherence - assumes that people are consistent with their behaviour, therefore there will be correlations between the crime and their everyday life.

• Forensic awareness - Some behaviours reveal that they have knowledge of police techniques, maybe through past experience. Davies et al. found that rapists that conceal fingerprints often had a previous burglary conviction

• Smallest space analysis - A statistical technique used to find correlations between offender behaviour and crime scene details based on info from similar previous cases 

Geographical profiling

• Is the person a marauder (close) or a commuter (travels)?

• Circle theory - Canter and Larkin suggested that a criminal’s base is usually in the centre of the entire area where they commit crimes. (only true for a marauder)

• Criminal geographic targeting (CGT) - A computerised system based on Rossmo’s formula, which makes a 3D map showing spatial data related to time, distance and movement to and from the crime scene.

Strengths of the bottom-up approach to offender profiling

The bottom-up approach can be applied to a range of crimes

Whilst the top-down approach only works for murders and/or SA, the bottom-up approach’s use of statistical techniques and the idea of spatial consistency can be applied to investigate crimes such as burglary or theft as well as murder.

Arguably more scientific and objective than top-down

It is more grounded in psychological theory and evidence, and less driven by speculation and hunches, which forensic psychologists do in the bottom-up approach. Investigators are able to obtain geographical and psychological data quickly through statistical and computerised techniques. 

Weak