AP Psychology memory unit (2)

based off of the meyers textbook for ap psychology

Selective Attention

Ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Application: When studying in a noisy café, I use selective attention to focus on my textbook and tune out surrounding conversations.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere.

Application: During a basketball game, players might experience inattentional blindness by not noticing a person in a gorilla suit walking across the court due to their intense focus on the game.

Change Blindness

Failure to detect changes in the environment.

Application: In a movie scene, viewers might experience change blindness by not noticing when an actor's shirt color changes between shots.

Perceptual Set

Mental predisposition that affects perception.

Application: When looking at clouds, a child's perceptual set might lead them to see animals or faces, while a meteorologist might perceive different cloud formations.

Gestalt

Principle stating that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.

Application: When viewing a face, we perceive it as a whole rather than individual features, demonstrating the Gestalt principle.

Figure-Ground

Perceptual principle where we distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground).

Application: In the famous 'Rubin's vase' illusion, our perception alternates between seeing a vase (figure) and two faces (ground).

Grouping

Perceptual organization of stimuli into meaningful patterns.

Application: When looking at a starry sky, we tend to group stars into constellations based on their proximity and arrangement.

Depth Perception

Ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances.

Application: Depth perception allows us to accurately reach for objects and navigate through doorways without bumping into them.

Visual Cliff

Experimental apparatus used to study depth perception in infants and animals.

Application: Researchers use the visual cliff to study how infants develop depth perception by observing their reactions to an apparent drop-off.

Binocular Cue

Visual information from both eyes used to perceive depth.

Application: When playing catch, we use binocular cues to judge the distance and trajectory of the ball as it approaches us.

Convergence

Inward turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects.

Application: When reading a book, our eyes converge to focus on the close-up text, helping us perceive depth and read comfortably.

Retinal Disparity

Difference in images received by each eye due to their slightly different positions.

Application: 3D movies exploit retinal disparity by presenting slightly different images to each eye, creating the illusion of depth.

Monocular Cue

Visual information from one eye used to perceive depth.

Application: Artists use monocular cues like linear perspective in paintings to create the illusion of depth on a flat canvas.

Stroboscopic Movement

Illusion of motion created by rapidly presenting a series of still images.

Application: Animation in movies and cartoons relies on stroboscopic movement to create the illusion of continuous motion.

Phi Phenomenon

Perception of movement between stationary objects shown in rapid succession.

Application: The phi phenomenon is used in electronic billboards where lights turn on and off sequentially to create the illusion of movement.

Autokinetic Effect

Illusion of movement in a stationary point of light in a dark environment.

Application: Pilots may experience the autokinetic effect when focusing on a single star in a dark sky, perceiving it as moving.

Perceptual Constancy

Tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.

Application: We perceive a door as rectangular even when viewed from an angle, demonstrating shape constancy.

Color Constancy

Perception of object colors as consistent under varying lighting conditions.

Application: We perceive a white shirt as white whether it's in sunlight or under fluorescent lighting due to color constancy.

Perceptual Adaptation

Sensory adjustment to an artificially altered environment.

Application: When wearing color-tinted glasses, our perception adapts over time, and colors start to appear normal.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge.

Application: When solving a math problem, we use cognition to understand the question, recall relevant information, and calculate the answer.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Application: A student practicing metacognition might realize they learn best by creating flashcards and adjust their study habits accordingly.

Concept

Mental representation of a category of objects, events, or ideas.

Application: The concept of 'fruit' allows us to recognize and categorize various items like apples, bananas, and oranges.

Prototype

Typical or best example of a category.

Application: When asked to think of a bird, many people imagine a robin as it's a prototype for the bird category in many cultures.

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist known for his work on cognitive development in children.

Application: Educators use Piaget's theories to design age-appropriate learning activities that match children's cognitive developmental stages.

Schema

Organized pattern of thought or behavior.

Application: Our schema for 'restaurant' includes expectations of being seated, ordering food, and paying a bill, which guides our behavior in new restaurants.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Application: When learning that a tomato is a fruit, we assimilate this information into our existing schema of fruits.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to fit new information.

Application: After learning about platypuses, we might accommodate our schema of mammals to include egg-laying animals.

Creativity

Ability to produce original and valuable ideas or solutions.

Application: A chef uses creativity to combine unexpected ingredients and create a unique, delicious dish.

Convergent Thinking

Thought process aimed at finding a single, correct solution to a problem.

Application: In a multiple-choice test, we use convergent thinking to select the one correct answer from the options provided.

Divergent Thinking

Thought process aimed at generating multiple, unique ideas or solutions.

Application: During a brainstorming session, we use divergent thinking to come up with various solutions to a problem.

Robert Sternberg

American psychologist known for his triarchic theory of intelligence.

Application: Educators might use Sternberg's theory to design curricula that develop analytical, creative, and practical skills.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that control and regulate other abilities and behaviors.

Application: When planning a study schedule, we use executive functions to prioritize tasks, manage time, and resist distractions.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing a task.

Application: Following a recipe to bake a cake is an example of using an algorithm in everyday life.

Heuristic

Mental shortcut or rule of thumb used for problem-solving.

Application: When shopping, we might use the price-quality heuristic, assuming that more expensive items are of higher quality.

Insight

Sudden understanding or solution to a problem.

Application: After struggling with a puzzle, we might experience insight when the solution suddenly becomes clear.

Wolfgang Köhler

German psychologist known for his work on problem-solving and insight.

Application: Köhler's experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated insight learning, influencing our understanding of problem-solving in both animals and humans.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Application: A person who believes in ghosts might focus on unexplained noises in an old house while ignoring logical explanations.

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Application: In the candle problem, fixation on the box's conventional use prevents people from seeing it as a potential candleholder.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.

Application: A math student might struggle with a problem requiring a new approach due to their mental set from solving similar problems differently.

(problem solving)

Intuition

Immediate understanding without conscious reasoning.

Application: An experienced nurse might have an intuition about a patient's condition before formal symptoms appear.

Amos Tversky

Israeli cognitive psychologist known for his work on judgment and decision-making.

Application: Tversky's research on cognitive biases has influenced fields like behavioral economics and public policy.

Daniel Kahneman

Israeli-American psychologist known for his work on judgment and decision-making.

Application: Kahneman's research on cognitive biases has led to improvements in medical decision-making and financial planning.

Representativeness Heuristic

Mental shortcut that judges the probability of something based on how closely it resembles a prototype.

Application: People might judge a well-dressed, articulate person as more likely to be a lawyer than a construction worker based on stereotypes.

Availability Heuristic

Mental shortcut that judges the probability of something based on how easily examples come to mind.

Application: After hearing news of a plane crash, people might overestimate the danger of flying due to the vivid, easily recalled example.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident in one's judgments than is warranted.

Application: Students might overestimate their preparedness for an exam, leading to insufficient study time.

Belief Perseverance

Tendency to maintain beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Application: Despite scientific evidence, some people persist in believing vaccinations cause autism due to belief perseverance.

Framing

The way information is presented, influencing decision-making.

Application: A product might be marketed as '95% fat-free' instead of '5% fat' to frame it more positively and influence consumer choices.

Nudge

Small change in the environment that alters people's behavior in a predictable way.

Application: Placing healthier food options at eye level in cafeterias can nudge people towards making healthier choices.

Memory

Ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Application: We use memory to recall important dates, navigate familiar routes, and apply learned skills in our daily lives.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues.

Application: In an essay exam, students use recall to answer questions without the aid of multiple-choice options.

Recognition

Identifying previously encountered information when presented with it.

Application: We use recognition when we identify a friend's face in a crowd or select the correct answer in a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

Learning information more quickly when it has been previously learned and forgotten.

Application: When relearning a language you studied years ago, you might find it easier to pick up than when you first learned it.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

German psychologist known for his pioneering work on memory.

Application: Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve informs spaced repetition techniques used in modern learning applications.

Encoding

Process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Application: When studying for an exam, we encode information by taking notes, creating mnemonics, or relating new concepts to existing knowledge.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Application: Our brains store memories of childhood experiences, allowing us to recall them years later.

Retrieval

Process of accessing stored information.

Application: During a trivia game, we retrieve stored information to answer questions about various topics.

Parallel Processing

Simultaneous processing of different types of information.

Application: While driving, we simultaneously process visual information about the road, auditory information from the radio, and kinesthetic information about the car's movement.

Richard Atkinson

American psychologist who, along with Richard Shiffrin, proposed the multi-store model of memory.

Application: Atkinson's work on memory has influenced educational practices, such as the use of rehearsal techniques to transfer information to long-term memory.

Richard Shiffrin

American psychologist who, along with Richard Atkinson, proposed the multi-store model of memory.

Application: Shiffrin's research has impacted our understanding of attention and memory, influencing fields like cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence.

Sensory Memory

Briefest form of memory that holds sensory information for a few seconds.

Application: Sensory memory allows us to retain an image of a lightning flash momentarily after it has disappeared.

Short-Term Memory

Memory system that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period.

Application: We use short-term memory to remember a phone number long enough to dial it.

Long-Term Memory

Memory system that stores information for extended periods.

Application: Our ability to recall childhood memories or use learned skills like riding a bicycle relies on long-term memory.

Working Memory

Active maintenance and manipulation of information in short-term memory.

Application: When solving a math problem in your head, you use working memory to hold numbers and perform calculations.

Central Executive

Component of working memory that controls attention and coordinates other components.

Application: The central executive helps us focus on relevant information and ignore distractions while working on a complex task.

Phonological Loop

Component of working memory that deals with auditory and verbal information.

Application: We use the phonological loop when rehearsing a phone number mentally to remember it.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Application: The visuospatial sketchpad helps us navigate through a familiar building by maintaining a mental map.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons in the brain.

Application: Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus may contribute to improved memory and cognitive function.

Eric Kandel

Austrian-American neuroscientist known for his research on the biological basis of memory.

Application: Kandel's work on memory storage in neurons has influenced our understanding of learning and memory disorders.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Application: LTP is believed to be a key cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory formation in the brain.

Explicit Memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of information.

Application: Recalling facts for a history exam or remembering what you had for breakfast involves explicit memory.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Application: Studying for an exam by actively rehearsing and elaborating on the material is an example of effortful processing.

Automatic Processing

Encoding that occurs with little or no effort.

Application: After years of practice, a skilled typist can type without consciously thinking about the location of keys on the keyboard.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious, unintentional recollection of information.

Application: The ability to ride a bicycle after years of not doing so demonstrates implicit memory for motor skills.

Iconic Memory

Brief sensory memory of visual stimuli.

Application: Iconic memory allows us to perceive motion in films, as it briefly holds each frame of the movie.

Echoic Memory

Brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Application: Echoic memory enables us to understand spoken language by holding sounds long enough to process them into words.

George A. Miller

American psychologist known for his work on the capacity of short-term memory.

Application: Miller's concept of 'chunking' is used in memory techniques and in designing user interfaces with manageable amounts of information.

Chunking

Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Application: We use chunking when remembering a phone number as three groups (area code, prefix, line number) instead of ten individual digits.

Mnemonics

Memory techniques that aid in information retention and retrieval.

Application: Students might use the mnemonic 'Every Good Boy Does Fine' to remember the lines of the treble clef in music notation.

Spacing Effect

Improved long-term retention when learning sessions are spaced out over time.

Application: Studying for an exam over several weeks is more effective than cramming the night before due to the spacing effect.

Testing Effect

Improved long-term retention resulting from the process of retrieving information during testing.

Application: Taking practice quizzes while studying can improve memory retention more than simply re-reading the material.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on structural or phonemic features of words.

Application: Quickly skimming a text for specific words involves shallow processing of the information.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaning and associations.

Application: Relating new information to personal experiences or existing knowledge involves deep processing, leading to better retention.

Semantic Memory

Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world.

Application: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France or that water boils at 100°C (at sea level) involves semantic memory.

Episodic Memory

Memory for specific personal experiences and events.

Application: Remembering details of your last birthday party or your first day at a new job involves episodic memory.

Hippocampus

Brain structure crucial for forming new memories and spatial navigation.

Application: Damage to the hippocampus can result in the inability to form new long-term memories, as seen in some Alzheimer's patients.

Memory Consolidation

Process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition.

Application: Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, which is why studying before sleep can improve retention.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid, detailed memory of a significant or emotionally charged event.

Application: Many people have flashbulb memories of where they were and what they were doing when they heard about major events like 9/11.

Priming

Activation of certain associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task.

Application: Exposure to the word 'yellow' might prime a person to more quickly identify a banana in a subsequent task.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is best when conditions at retrieval match those at encoding.

Application: Studying in the same room where you'll take the test can improve recall due to encoding specificity.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall information more easily when in a mood similar to when the memory was formed.

Application: When feeling happy, you might more easily recall positive memories from your past.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

Application: In a grocery list, items at the top and bottom are often remembered more easily than those in the middle.

Interleaving

Learning technique of mixing different topics or forms of practice to facilitate learning.

Application: A music student might practice scales, sight-reading, and pieces in an interleaved manner rather than focusing on one skill at a time.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Application: A person with anterograde amnesia might remember events from before their injury but struggle to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

Application: Someone with retrograde amnesia might forget events from their past but still be able to form new memories.

Proactive Interference

Difficulty in learning new information because of interference from old information.

Application: A student might struggle to learn a new language because vocabulary from a previously learned language interferes.

Retroactive Interference

Difficulty in recalling old information because of interference from new information.

Application: After learning a new phone number, you might have trouble remembering your old one due to retroactive interference.

Repression

Psychological defense mechanism of pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious.

Application: A person might repress traumatic childhood memories as a coping mechanism.

Reconsolidation

Process where retrieved memories become labile and can be modified before being restored.

Application: Therapists might use reconsolidation to help patients reframe traumatic memories during treatment.

Elizabeth Loftus

American cognitive psychologist known for her work on false memories.

Application: Loftus's research has influenced legal practices regarding the reliability of eyewitness testimony.

Misinformation Effect

Incorporation of misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Application: A witness's memory of a crime might be altered by subsequent questioning that introduces inaccurate details.