Selective Attention
• Ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others• Application: When studying in a noisy café, I use selective attention to focus on my textbook and tune out surrounding conversations.Inattentional Blindness
• Failure to notice unexpected stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere• Application: During a basketball game, players might experience inattentional blindness by not noticing a person in a gorilla suit walking across the court due to their intense focus on the game.Change Blindness
• Failure to detect changes in the environment• Application: In a movie scene, viewers might experience change blindness by not noticing when an actor's shirt color changes between shots.Perceptual Set
• Mental predisposition that affects perception• Application: When looking at clouds, a child's perceptual set might lead them to see animals or faces, while a meteorologist might perceive different cloud formations.Gestalt
• Principle stating that the whole is different from the sum of its parts• Application: When viewing a face, we perceive it as a whole rather than individual features, demonstrating the Gestalt principle.Figure-Ground
• Perceptual principle where we distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground)• Application: In the famous "Rubin's vase" illusion, our perception alternates between seeing a vase (figure) and two faces (ground).Grouping
• Perceptual organization of stimuli into meaningful patterns• Application: When looking at a starry sky, we tend to group stars into constellations based on their proximity and arrangement.Depth Perception
• Ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances• Application: Depth perception allows us to accurately reach for objects and navigate through doorways without bumping into them.Visual Cliff
• Experimental apparatus used to study depth perception in infants and animals• Application: Researchers use the visual cliff to study how infants develop depth perception by observing their reactions to an apparent drop-off.Binocular Cue
• Visual information from both eyes used to perceive depth• Application: When playing catch, we use binocular cues to judge the distance and trajectory of the ball as it approaches us.Convergence
• Inward turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects• Application: When reading a book, our eyes converge to focus on the close-up text, helping us perceive depth and read comfortably.Retinal Disparity
• Difference in images received by each eye due to their slightly different positions• Application: 3D movies exploit retinal disparity by presenting slightly different images to each eye, creating the illusion of depth.Monocular Cue
• Visual information from one eye used to perceive depth• Application: Artists use monocular cues like linear perspective in paintings to create the illusion of depth on a flat canvas.Stroboscopic Movement
• Illusion of motion created by rapidly presenting a series of still images• Application: Animation in movies and cartoons relies on stroboscopic movement to create the illusion of continuous motion.Phi Phenomenon
• Perception of movement between stationary objects shown in rapid succession• Application: The phi phenomenon is used in electronic billboards where lights turn on and off sequentially to create the illusion of movement.Autokinetic Effect
• Illusion of movement in a stationary point of light in a dark environment• Application: Pilots may experience the autokinetic effect when focusing on a single star in a dark sky, perceiving it as moving.Perceptual Constancy
• Tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input• Application: We perceive a door as rectangular even when viewed from an angle, demonstrating shape constancy.Color Constancy
• Perception of object colors as consistent under varying lighting conditions• Application: We perceive a white shirt as white whether it's in sunlight or under fluorescent lighting due to color constancy.Perceptual Adaptation
• Sensory adjustment to an artificially altered environment• Application: When wearing color-tinted glasses, our perception adapts over time, and colors start to appear normal.Cognition
• Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge• Application: When solving a math problem, we use cognition to understand the question, recall relevant information, and calculate the answer.Metacognition
• Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes• Application: A student practicing metacognition might realize they learn best by creating flashcards and adjust their study habits accordingly.Concept
• Mental representation of a category of objects, events, or ideas• Application: The concept of "fruit" allows us to recognize and categorize various items like apples, bananas, and oranges.Prototype
• Typical or best example of a category• Application: When asked to think of a bird, many people imagine a robin as it's a prototype for the bird category in many cultures.Jean Piaget
• Swiss psychologist known for his work on cognitive development in children• Application: Educators use Piaget's theories to design age-appropriate learning activities that match children's cognitive developmental stages.Schema
• Organized pattern of thought or behavior• Application: Our schema for "restaurant" includes expectations of being seated, ordering food, and paying a bill, which guides our behavior in new restaurants.Assimilation
• Incorporating new information into existing schemas• Application: When learning that a tomato is a fruit, we assimilate this information into our existing schema of fruits.Accommodation
• Modifying existing schemas to fit new information• Application: After learning about platypuses, we might accommodate our schema of mammals to include egg-laying animals.Creativity
• Ability to produce original and valuable ideas or solutions• Application: A chef uses creativity to combine unexpected ingredients and create a unique, delicious dish.Convergent Thinking
• Thought process aimed at finding a single, correct solution to a problem• Application: In a multiple-choice test, we use convergent thinking to select the one correct answer from the options provided.Divergent Thinking
• Thought process aimed at generating multiple, unique ideas or solutions• Application: During a brainstorming session, we use divergent thinking to come up with various solutions to a problem.Robert Sternberg
• American psychologist known for his triarchic theory of intelligence• Application: Educators might use Sternberg's theory to design curricula that develop analytical, creative, and practical skills.Executive Functions
• Cognitive processes that control and regulate other abilities and behaviors• Application: When planning a study schedule, we use executive functions to prioritize tasks, manage time, and resist distractions.Algorithm
• Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing a task• Application: Following a recipe to bake a cake is an example of using an algorithm in everyday life.Heuristic
• Mental shortcut or rule of thumb used for problem-solving• Application: When shopping, we might use the price-quality heuristic, assuming that more expensive items are of higher quality.Insight
• Sudden understanding or solution to a problem• Application: After struggling with a puzzle, we might experience insight when the solution suddenly becomes clear.Wolfgang Köhler
• German psychologist known for his work on problem-solving and insight• Application: Köhler's experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated insight learning, influencing our understanding of problem-solving in both animals and humans.Confirmation Bias
• Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs• Application: A person who believes in ghosts might focus on unexplained noises in an old house while ignoring logical explanations.Fixation
• Inability to see a problem from a new perspective• Application: In the candle problem, fixation on the box's conventional use prevents people from seeing it as a potential candleholder.Mental Set
• Tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences• Application: A math student might struggle with a problem requiring a new approach due to their mental set from solving similar problems differently.Intuition
• Immediate understanding without conscious reasoning• Application: An experienced nurse might have an intuition about a patient's condition before formal symptoms appear.Amos Tversky
• Israeli cognitive psychologist known for his work on judgment and decision-making• Application: Tversky's research on cognitive biases has influenced fields like behavioral economics and public policy.Daniel Kahneman
• Israeli-American psychologist known for his work on judgment and decision-making• Application: Kahneman's research on cognitive biases has led to improvements in medical decision-making and financial planning.Representativeness Heuristic
• Mental shortcut that judges the probability of something based on how closely it resembles a prototype• Application: People might judge a well-dressed, articulate person as more likely to be a lawyer than a construction worker based on stereotypes.Availability Heuristic
• Mental shortcut that judges the probability of something based on how easily examples come to mind• Application: After hearing news of a plane crash, people might overestimate the danger of flying due to the vivid, easily recalled example.Overconfidence
• Tendency to be more confident in one's judgments than is warranted• Application: Students might overestimate their preparedness for an exam, leading to insufficient study time.Belief Perseverance
• Tendency to maintain beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence• Application: Despite scientific evidence, some people persist in believing vaccinations cause autism due to belief perseverance.Framing
• The way information is presented, influencing decision-making• Application: A product might be marketed as "95% fat-free" instead of "5% fat" to frame it more positively and influence consumer choices.Nudge
• Small change in the environment that alters people's behavior in a predictable way• Application: Placing healthier food options at eye level in cafeterias can nudge people towards making healthier choices.Memory
• Ability to encode, store, and retrieve information• Application: We use memory to recall important dates, navigate familiar routes, and apply learned skills in our daily lives.Recall
• Retrieving information from memory without cues• Application: In an essay exam, students use recall to answer questions without the aid of multiple-choice options.Recognition
• Identifying previously encountered information when presented with it• Application: We use recognition when we identify a friend's face in a crowd or select the correct answer in a multiple-choice test.Relearning
• Learning information more quickly when it has been previously learned and forgotten• Application: When relearning a language you studied years ago, you might find it easier to pick up than when you first learned it.Hermann Ebbinghaus
• German psychologist known for his pioneering work on memory• Application: Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve informs spaced repetition techniques used in modern learning applications.Encoding
• Process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory• Application: When studying for an exam, we encode information by taking notes, creating mnemonics, or relating new concepts to existing knowledge.Storage
• Retention of encoded information over time• Application: Our brains store memories of childhood experiences, allowing us to recall them years later.Retrieval
• Process of accessing stored information• Application: During a trivia game, we retrieve stored information to answer questions about various topics.Parallel Processing
• Simultaneous processing of different types of information• Application: While driving, we simultaneously process visual information about the road, auditory information from the radio, and kinesthetic information about the car's movement.Richard Atkinson
• American psychologist who, along with Richard Shiffrin, proposed the multi-store model of memory• Application: Atkinson's work on memory has influenced educational practices, such as the use of rehearsal techniques to transfer information to long-term memory.Richard Shiffrin
• American psychologist who, along with Richard Atkinson, proposed the multi-store model of memory• Application: Shiffrin's research has impacted our understanding of attention and memory, influencing fields like cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence.Sensory Memory
• Briefest form of memory that holds sensory information for a few seconds• Application: Sensory memory allows us to retain an image of a lightning flash momentarily after it has disappeared.Short-Term Memory
• Memory system that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period• Application: We use short-term memory to remember a phone number long enough to dial it.Long-Term Memory
• Memory system that stores information for extended periods• Application: Our ability to recall childhood memories or use learned skills like riding a bicycle relies on long-term memory.Working Memory
• Active maintenance and manipulation of information in short-term memory• Application: When solving a math problem in your head, you use working memory to hold numbers and perform calculations.Central Executive
• Component of working memory that controls attention and coordinates other components• Application: The central executive helps us focus on relevant information and ignore distractions while working on a complex task.Phonological Loop
• Component of working memory that deals with auditory and verbal information• Application: We use the phonological loop when rehearsing a phone number mentally to remember it.Visuospatial Sketchpad
• Component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information• Application: The visuospatial sketchpad helps us navigate through a familiar building by maintaining a mental map.Neurogenesis
• Formation of new neurons in the brain• Application: Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus may contribute to improved memory and cognitive function.Eric Kandel
• Austrian-American neuroscientist known for his research on the biological basis of memory• Application: Kandel's work on memory storage in neurons has influenced our understanding of learning and memory disorders.Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
• Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity• Application: LTP is believed to be a key cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory formation in the brain.Explicit Memory
• Conscious, intentional recollection of information• Application: Recalling facts for a history exam or remembering what you had for breakfast involves explicit memory.Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort• Application: Studying for an exam by actively rehearsing and elaborating on the material is an example of effortful processing.Automatic Processing
• Encoding that occurs with little or no effort• Application: After years of practice, a skilled typist can type without consciously thinking about the location of keys on the keyboard.Implicit Memory
• Unconscious, unintentional recollection of information• Application: The ability to ride a bicycle after years of not doing so demonstrates implicit memory for motor skills.Iconic Memory
• Brief sensory memory of visual stimuli• Application: Iconic memory allows us to perceive motion in films, as it briefly holds each frame of the movie.Echoic Memory
• Brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli• Application: Echoic memory enables us to understand spoken language by holding sounds long enough to process them into words.George A. Miller
• American psychologist known for his work on the capacity of short-term memory• Application: Miller's concept of "chunking" is used in memory techniques and in designing user interfaces with manageable amounts of information.Chunking
• Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units• Application: We use chunking when remembering a phone number as three groups (area code, prefix, line number) instead of ten individual digits.Mnemonics
• Memory techniques that aid in information retention and retrieval• Application: Students might use the mnemonic "Every Good Boy Does Fine" to remember the lines of the treble clef in music notation.Spacing Effect
• Improved long-term retention when learning sessions are spaced out over time• Application: Studying for an exam over several weeks is more effective than cramming the night before due to the spacing effect.Testing Effect
• Improved long-term retention resulting from the process of retrieving information during testing• Application: Taking practice quizzes while studying can improve memory retention more than simply re-reading the material.Shallow Processing
• Encoding based on structural or phonemic features of words• Application: Quickly skimming a text for specific words involves shallow processing of the information.Deep Processing
• Encoding based on meaning and associations• Application: Relating new information to personal experiences or existing knowledge involves deep processing, leading to better retention.Semantic Memory
• Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world• Application: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France or that water boils at 100°C (at sea level) involves semantic memory.Episodic Memory
• Memory for specific personal experiences and events• Application: Remembering details of your last birthday party or your first day at a new job involves episodic memory.
Hippocampus
• Brain structure crucial for forming new memories and spatial navigation• Application: Damage to the hippocampus can result in the inability to form new long-term memories, as seen in some Alzheimer's patients.Memory Consolidation
• Process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition• Application: Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, which is why studying before sleep can improve retention.

Flashbulb Memory
• Vivid, detailed memory of a significant or emotionally charged event• Application: Many people have flashbulb memories of where they were and what they were doing when they heard about major events like 9/11.Priming
• Activation of certain associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task• Application: Exposure to the word "yellow" might prime a person to more quickly identify a banana in a subsequent task.Encoding Specificity Principle
• Memory is best when conditions at retrieval match those at encoding• Application: Studying in the same room where you'll take the test can improve recall due to encoding specificity.Mood-Congruent Memory
• Tendency to recall information more easily when in a mood similar to when the memory was formed• Application: When feeling happy, you might more easily recall positive memories from your past.Serial Position Effect
• Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle• Application: In a grocery list, items at the top and bottom are often remembered more easily than those in the middle.Interleaving
• Learning technique of mixing different topics or forms of practice to facilitate learning• Application: A music student might practice scales, sight-reading, and pieces in an interleaved manner rather than focusing on one skill at a time.Anterograde Amnesia
• Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia• Application: A person with anterograde amnesia might remember events from before their injury but struggle to form new memories.Retrograde Amnesia
• Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia• Application: Someone with retrograde amnesia might forget events from their past but still be able to form new memories.Proactive Interference
• Difficulty in learning new information because of interference from old information• Application: A student might struggle to learn a new language because vocabulary from a previously learned language interferes.Retroactive Interference
• Difficulty in recalling old information because of interference from new information• Application: After learning a new phone number, you might have trouble remembering your old one due to retroactive interference.Repression
• Psychological defense mechanism of pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious• Application: A person might repress traumatic childhood memories as a coping mechanism.Reconsolidation
• Process where retrieved memories become labile and can be modified before being restored• Application: Therapists might use reconsolidation to help patients reframe traumatic memories during treatment.Elizabeth Loftus
• American cognitive psychologist known for her work on false memories• Application: Loftus's research has influenced legal practices regarding the reliability of eyewitness testimony.Misinformation Effect
• Incorporation of misleading information into one's memory of an event• Application: A witness's memory of a crime might be altered by subsequent questioning that introduces inaccurate details.Source Amnesia
• Forgetting the source of a memory while retaining the memory itself• Application: You might remember a fact but forget whether you learned it from a book, a friend, or a TV show.Déjà Vu
• Feeling of having experienced a current situation before• Application: While visiting a new place, you might have a strong sense that you've been there before, even though you know you haven't.Intelligence
• Mental capability involving reasoning, planning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, learning, and adapting• Application: High intelligence might help a student quickly grasp complex mathematical concepts and apply them to new problems.Charles Spearman
• British psychologist who developed the two-factor theory of intelligence• Application: Spearman's work on general intelligence (g) has influenced the development of many intelligence tests.General Intelligence (g)
• Spearman's concept of a broad mental capability that influences performance on cognitive tasks• Application: A high g factor might contribute to strong performance across various academic subjects and cognitive tasks.Factor Analysis
• Statistical method used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of fewer unobserved variables• Application: Psychologists use factor analysis to identify underlying traits or abilities in intelligence and personality research.L. L. Thurstone
• American psychologist who proposed multiple primary mental abilities instead of a single general intelligence• Application: Thurstone's work has influenced the development of aptitude tests that measure different cognitive abilities separately.Fluid Intelligence (Gf)
• Ability to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge• Application: Fluid intelligence is crucial for adapting to new situations, like figuring out how to use a new smartphone interface.Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)
• Ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience• Application: A history buff uses crystallized intelligence when recalling historical facts to understand current events.Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory
• Comprehensive model of cognitive abilities that integrates earlier theories• Application: The CHC theory informs the design of modern intelligence tests, providing a more nuanced view of cognitive abilities.Howard Gardner
• American psychologist who proposed the theory of multiple intelligences• Application: Educators might use Gardner's theory to design diverse learning experiences that cater to different types of intelligence.Savant Syndrome
• Condition where a person with significant mental disabilities demonstrates profound and prodigious capacities in specific areas• Application: A person with savant syndrome might have extraordinary musical abilities despite struggling with basic daily tasks.Grit
• Perseverance and passion for long-term goals• Application: A student with high grit might persist in studying a difficult subject, leading to eventual mastery despite initial struggles.Emotional Intelligence
• Ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions• Application: A manager with high emotional intelligence might effectively navigate team conflicts and motivate employees.Intelligence Test
• Standardized assessment designed to measure cognitive abilities and potential• Application: Schools might use intelligence tests to identify students for gifted programs or to determine appropriate educational interventions.Achievement Test
• Assessment that measures what a person has learned in a specific academic area• Application: End-of-year exams in school subjects are achievement tests that measure what students have learned over the course of the year.Aptitude Test
• Assessment that measures a person's potential to learn a specific skill or succeed in a particular field• Application: A music school might use an aptitude test to assess potential students' innate musical abilities.Francis Galton
• British polymath who pioneered early research on human intelligence and individual differences• Application: Galton's work on heredity and individual differences laid the groundwork for modern intelligence testing and behavioral genetics.Alfred Binet
• French psychologist who developed the first practical intelligence test• Application: Binet's work led to the development of IQ tests used to identify children who might need special educational support.Mental Age
• Measure of a person's mental ability in terms of the average abilities of people at a given chronological age• Application: A 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 would be performing cognitive tasks at the level of an average 12-year-old.Lewis Terman
• American psychologist who developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales• Application: Terman's work on intelligence testing has influenced educational practices and the identification of gifted children.Stanford-Binet
• Intelligence test that originated from Binet's work, adapted and standardized by Terman• Application: The Stanford-Binet test is still used today to assess cognitive abilities across a wide age range.Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
• Score derived from standardized intelligence tests• Application: IQ scores are sometimes used in educational placement or to identify individuals who might benefit from specialized programs.David Wechsler
• American psychologist who developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)• Application: Wechsler's tests are widely used in clinical and educational settings to assess cognitive abilities.Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
• Comprehensive test of cognitive ability for adults• Application: Psychologists might use the WAIS to assess cognitive functioning in adults for clinical or research purposes.Psychometrics
• Field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement• Application: Psychometricians develop and validate tests used in educational, clinical, and organizational settings.Standardization
• Process of administering a test under uniform conditions to establish norms• Application: Intelligence tests are standardized to ensure that scores can be meaningfully compared across individuals.Normal Curve
• Bell-shaped distribution of scores that represents the frequency of occurrences in a population• Application: IQ scores are typically distributed along a normal curve, with most people scoring near the average.Flynn Effect
• Substantial increase in average intelligence test scores over time• Application: The Flynn Effect has led to the periodic re-norming of intelligence tests to maintain their accuracy.Reliability
• Consistency of a measure over time or across different raters• Application: A reliable intelligence test should produce similar scores for an individual if taken multiple times under similar conditions.Validity
• Extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure• Application: A valid career aptitude test should accurately predict success in relevant occupations.Content Validity
• Extent to which a test represents all facets of a given construct• Application: A comprehensive math test with questions covering all key topics taught in a course would have high content validity.Construct Validity
• Extent to which a test measures the intended theoretical construct• Application: An intelligence test with high construct validity would correlate well with other measures of cognitive ability.Predictive Validity
• Extent to which a test predicts future performance• Application: SAT scores with high predictive validity would accurately forecast a student's performance in college.Cross-Sectional Study
• Research method that compares different age groups at a single point in time• Application: Researchers might use a cross-sectional study to examine how cognitive abilities differ across various age groups.Longitudinal Study
• Research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period• Application: A longitudinal study might track the cognitive development of a group of children from early childhood through adolescence.Cohort
• Group of people born around the same time and experiencing similar historical events• Application: Researchers might study different cohorts to understand how societal changes affect cognitive development across generations.Carol Dweck
• American psychologist known for her work on mindset theory• Application: Educators might apply Dweck's research by encouraging students to develop a growth mindset to improve academic performance.Growth Mindset
• Belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work• Application: A student with a growth mindset might view a challenging math problem as an opportunity to learn rather than a threat to their intelligence.Fixed Mindset
• Belief that abilities are static traits that cannot be significantly changed• Application: An employee with a fixed mindset might avoid new challenges at work, fearing they might expose a lack of ability.Steven Pinker
• Canadian-American cognitive psychologist known for his work on language and cognition• Application: Pinker's research on language acquisition has influenced theories of how children learn to speak and understand language.Stereotype Threat
• Situation where individuals are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their group• Application: Female students might underperform on a math test due to stereotype threat if reminded of the stereotype that women are less skilled at math.