Unit 1 AP Psychology

Heredity

The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature refers to genes and hereditary factors; Nurture refers to environmental factors influencing behavior and development.

Genetic predisposition

An inherited tendency that makes it easier to develop certain traits or behaviors.

Evolutionary perspective

Examines behavior in relation to heredity, adaptation, and survival.

Natural selection

The process by which helpful traits that aid survival and reproduction are passed on.

Eugenics

An inhumane practice of human breeding aimed at eliminating or encouraging certain traits.

Twin studies

Examine similarities between identical and fraternal twins to determine genetic versus environmental influences.

Family studies

Compare traits and disorders across family members to determine hereditary influence.

Adoption studies

Analyze the traits of adoptive children compared to their biological and adoptive parents to examine influences.

Central nervous system

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, which process and coordinate information.

Peripheral nervous system

Connects the central nervous system to the body, encompassing all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary processes.

Sympathetic nervous system

Responsible for the fight-or-flight response, which speeds up bodily functions.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Promotes rest and digestion, effectively slowing down bodily functions.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.

Glial cells

Nourish, protect, and insulate neurons.

Reflex arc

The pathway a nerve follows during a reflex action, which occurs automatically without conscious thought.

Sensory neurons

Carry sensory information to the central nervous system.

Motor neurons

Carry instructions from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Nerve cells within the central nervous system that process information and connect sensory and motor neurons.

Neural transmission

Process of sending information between neurons through electrical and chemical activity.

Action potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron.

All-or-nothing

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Depolarization

When a neuron becomes more positive, triggering an action potential.

Refractory period

Recovery time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.

Resting potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is not firing.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire.

Multiple Sclerosis

A condition where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting communication in the nervous system.

Myasthenia Gravis

A condition where the immune system interferes with communication between nerves and muscles.

Melatonin

Regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

Adrenaline

Produced by the adrenal glands, it is involved in stress and excitement responses.

Leptin

Regulates appetite by signaling fullness.

Ghrelin

Released by the stomach when hungry, it stimulates appetite.

Oxytocin

Known as the 'love hormone', it regulates trust, bonding, birth, and breastfeeding.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle function, learning, memory, and attention.

Dopamine

Associated with the reward complex, mood, emotion, and arousal.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, hunger, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

Involved in the fight-or-flight response, arousal, alertness, and mood elevation.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter, involved in sleep/wake cycles.

Endorphins

Responsible for pain control, stress relief, and promoting positive emotions.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter, crucial for learning.

Agonist

Mimics/enhances the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

Blocks neurotransmitter.

Dendrite

Receives signals.

Axon

Sends signals to another neuron, muscle, or gland.

Cell body

Contains neuron and other organelles.

Myelin sheath

Insulates neuron.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways.

Hindbrain

Contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Midbrain

Found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain and controls some motor movement.

Forebrain

Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex activities.

Brain stem

Central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Reticular Formation

Nerve network in the brainstem that controls arousal.

Pons

Involved in sleep and arousal.

Medulla

Controls automated processes like breathing and heart rate.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard; directs messages to sensory areas in the cortex.

Cerebellum

Processes sensory input and coordinates movement, balance.

Limbic System

Neural system associated with emotions and drives.

Hippocampus

Helps process explicit memories for storage.

Hypothalamus

Directs maintenance activities like hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Amygdala

Linked to emotion.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them.

Pineal Gland

Secretes melatonin.

Pituitary Gland

Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Cerebral Cortex

The body's ultimate control and information processing center.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in personality, intelligence, and voluntary muscle control.

Parietal Lobe

Receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Temporal Lobe

Includes auditory areas that receive information primarily from the opposite ear.

Occipital Lobe

Includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

Registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Broca's Area

Helps control language expression by directing muscle movements in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Involved in language comprehension and expression.

Auditory Cortex

Responsible for processing sound information.

Visual Cortex

The visual processing areas located in the occipital and temporal lobes.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Dual processing

The principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Parallel processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously.

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time.

Blindsight

A condition in which one responds to a visual stimulus without conscious experience.

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms occurring on a 24-hour cycle.

NREM-1

The transition into sleep marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves.

NREM-2

Characterized by periodic sleep spindles; about half the night is spent in this phase.

NREM-3

Sleep stage with large delta waves; deep sleep occurs here.

REM

A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

Hypnagogic sensations

Sensations of falling or floating incorporated into memories.

Sleep spindles

Bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Controls circadian rhythm by adjusting melatonin production in response to light.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep.

Night Terrors

Abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking.

Sleep

Natural loss of consciousness, distinct from unconsciousness due to conditions.

Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Diminished productivity, irritability, weight increase, immune suppression, slow reaction times.

Dreams

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts during sleep.

Sleep Paralysis

A temporary condition of inability to move during awakening.

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM deprivation.