Unit 1 AP Psychology
What is heredity?
The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.
What are the two main factors that influence behavior and development?
Nature (genes and hereditary factors) and Nurture (environmental factors).
What is genetic predisposition?
An inherited tendency that makes it easier to develop certain traits or behaviors.
What does the evolutionary perspective examine?
Behavior in relation to heredity, adaptation, and survival.
What is natural selection?
The process by which helpful traits that aid survival and reproduction are passed on.
What is eugenics?
An inhumane practice of human breeding aimed at eliminating or encouraging certain traits.
What do twin studies examine?
Similarities between identical and fraternal twins to determine genetic versus environmental influences.
What do family studies compare?
Traits and disorders across family members to determine hereditary influence.
What do adoption studies analyze?
The traits of adoptive children compared to their biological and adoptive parents to examine genetic versus environmental influences.
What is the central nervous system composed of?
The brain and spinal cord, which process and coordinate information.
What is the function of the peripheral nervous system?
To connect the central nervous system to the body, encompassing all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
It controls voluntary movements.
What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?
Involuntary processes.
What is the sympathetic nervous system responsible for?
The fight-or-flight response, which speeds up bodily functions.
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
It promotes rest and digestion, effectively slowing down bodily functions.
What are neurons?
Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.
What is the function of glial cells?
To nourish, protect, and insulate neurons.
What is a reflex arc?
The pathway a nerve follows during a reflex action, which occurs automatically without conscious thought.
What are sensory neurons?
Nerve cells that carry sensory information to the central nervous system.
What do motor neurons do?
They carry instructions from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
What are interneurons?
Nerve cells within the central nervous system that process information and connect sensory and motor neurons.
What is neural transmission?
The process of sending information between neurons through electrical and chemical activity.
What is action potential?
A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron.
What does the term 'all-or-nothing' refer to in neural firing?
A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
What is depolarization in a neuron?
When a neuron becomes more positive, triggering an action potential.
What is the refractory period?
The recovery time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.
What is resting potential?
The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is not firing.
What is reuptake in the context of neurotransmitters?
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.
What is the threshold in neural firing?
The minimum level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire.
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
A condition where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting communication in the nervous system.
What is Myasthenia Gravis?
A condition where the immune system interferes with communication between nerves and muscles.
What is the function of melatonin?
Regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
What role does adrenaline play in the body?
Produced by the adrenal glands, it is involved in stress and excitement responses.
What is the function of leptin?
Regulates appetite by signaling fullness.
What does ghrelin do?
Released by the stomach when hungry, it stimulates appetite.
What is oxytocin known as and what does it regulate?
Known as the 'love hormone', it regulates trust, bonding, birth, and breastfeeding.
What is the role of acetylcholine?
Involved in muscle function, learning, memory, and attention.
What is dopamine associated with?
The reward complex, mood, emotion, and arousal.
What is serotonin's primary function?
Regulates mood, hunger, and sleep.
What does norepinephrine do?
Involved in the fight-or-flight response, arousal, alertness, and mood elevation.
What is GABA?
The main inhibitory neurotransmitter, involved in sleep/wake cycles.
What are endorphins responsible for?
Pain control, stress relief, and promoting positive emotions.
What is glutamate's primary role?
The main excitatory neurotransmitter, crucial for learning.
agonist
mimics/enhances the action of a neurotransmitter
antagonist
blocks neurotransmitter
dendrite
Receives signals
Axon
sends signals to another neuron, muscle, or gland
Cell body
contains neuron and other organelles
Myelin sheath
insulates neuron
Neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Hindbrain
contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum
Midbrain
found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information
forebrain
consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities
brain stem
the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.
Reticular Formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
pons
sleep and arousal
medulla
hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
Limbic System
neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Hypothalamus
a limbic system structure lying below the thalamus; it directions maintenance activities like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormones.
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Corpus Callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Pineal Gland
secretes melatonin
Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Frontal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence (Critical thinking and judgement), and the control of voluntary muscles.
parietal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Temporal Lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Occipital Lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Motor Cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Broca's Area
a frontal lobe brain area, in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression
Auditory Cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
Visual Cortex
The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.
Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
Dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
parallel processing
processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously
sequential processing
the processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
NREM-1
the transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves; hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations may occur
NREM-2
Sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles, or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. About half the night is spent in this phase.
NREM-3
sleep stage that lasts about 30 minutes and your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken. Deep Sleep occurs in this stage.
REM
rapid eye movement; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
hypnogogic sensations
sensations of falling or floating that are sometimes later incorporated into memories
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Night Terrors
abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal
somnambulism
sleepwalking
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Effects of Sleep Deprivation
Diminished productivity, irritability, fatigue
Weight increase (ghrelin & cortisol increase, leptin decrease)
Immune system suppression
Slows reaction time and increases errors
Dreams
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
Sleep Paralysis
A temporary condition in which a person is unable to move upon awakening in the morning or during the night.
Rem Rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
PET (positron emission tomography)
a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.
CT (computed tomography) scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.