Human Development: Adulthood and Aging

adulthood

Defined as 18+ years old
Can be further defined as:
-Early adulthood 18-34 or 18-40
-Middle adulthood 34-60 or 40-65
-Later adulthood 60+ or 65+

Relevance of Studying Adulthood & Aging

For adults- as we move through life and its stages, it is useful to
understand why/how certain things occur
For aged- this population is growing fast and it’s important to
know as much about why/how certain things occur in order to
1) plan for future, 2) provide appropriate services, 3) advance
medically/socially and 4) we’ll all be old someday!

“Graying of America”

Aged 65+ growing rapidly
1870-present: 30 fold increase in 65+
1 million to 35 million in 2000
65+ growing 2X faster than other groups

Increase in life expectancy in 20th century

78.4 years old (2023)
In 20th century, nearly 30 years added
1/4-1/3 of life spent in retirement years
Half of the humans that lived past 65 are alive today
This is likely genetically determined meaning that evolution
arranged for the aging but not necessarily how to cope with the
symptoms of aging (Moody, 2010)

Gender differences in life expectancy

Males: 73.2
Females: 79.1
1. Biological Advantage
2. Social Impact
3. Lifestyles

biological advantage for females

Perhaps less than in past
Resistance to biological aging
Female hormones and role of reproduction linked to
longevity (ex. estrogen facilitates elimination of bad
cholesterol)

social differences for male

Negative behavioral or environmental impacts
”man-made” diseases are more typically male: exposure
to hazards in workplace, alcoholism, smoking, road
accidents
Gap is closing here

differences in lifestyles

Females benefit more from progress in health
Participate in the workforce more equally but it’s less hard on health
Women seek beauty while men seek power/strength
Women must remain young/healthy for longer while men submit to
risks/challenges
This makes women more attentive to health and seeking healthcare

Life Expectancy for African Americans

-socioeconomic differences (lower education and income) explain 70% of the gap
between black and white males and 80% between black and white females
-discrimination and chronic stress may lead to increased mortality among blacks
beginning at mid-life (hardship, trauma, residential segregation) due to onset of
disease (like cardiovascular disease and diabetes)
-however, once reach 85 yo, “hardier” and live longer than whites
-poor health care, living in a disadvantaged neighborhood

Life Expectancy for Hispanics

”Hispanic Paradox”: strong community and multi-
generational living outweigh lower SES
Vulnerability among subgroups:
Lower SES for Mexican-Americans
More smoking among Cuban-Americans and Puerto
Ricans
Fear of immigration status = stress

population aging

A change in the demographic structure of a population –
increasing median age
-Not just in the U.S., but historically unprecedented in world’s
societies
-People 85+ are the fastest growing group of Americans, now
outnumbering teenagers

Contributions to this in U.S.:
-fewer number of children compared to those living
longer (FL is an example)
-decreased birthrates
-increased life expectancies

US vs other countries

Study by Bloomberg American Health Initiative from 2024
Life expectancy in Great Britain is 81.3 years– why the difference as it was
previously similar (1984)?
-Cardiovascular Disease
-Overdose deaths
-Gun-related deaths
-Motor vehicle crashes

Why is Population Aging a Concern?

Shifting disease burden
Increase expense on healthcare and long-term care
Labor force shortage
Potential problems with social security
Dissaving (spend above income by dipping into savings or using credit)

Birth cohort and generation

Birth Cohort: A collection of people who share an
experience or characteristic over time (e.g. Baby
Boomers born after WWII), more of a research term
-Generation: people born during a certain time period
(e.g. children of the Great Depression) (can mean the
same thing)
Birth years for generations: ... Generation Z: Born 1997-2012. Millenials: Born 1981-
1996. Generation X: Born 1965 to 1980. Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to 1964.
Silent Generation: Born 1928-1945.

Baby Boomers

Americans born between 1946 and 1964 (now aged 60-78)
78 million (26% of the population)
-Sheer size is a factor
-Higher education than past generations
-Childhood in 50s/60s: experienced postwar affluence and
economic prosperity
-In 60s/70s: experienced social upheaval (e.g. Vietnam protests,
feminism, civil rights and environmental advocacy)—pushed for
rights and tolerance

stages of life

Began to demarcate beyond simply childhood and
adulthood in the 16th and 17th centuries
-Because of changes in the oldest group, can further
expand:
-young-old 65-74 years old
-old-old 75-84 years old
-oldest-old 85+ years old (Kohli, 1987)

life course perspective

Study of the entire course of human life
-Last stage in life is a result of all the stages that came before it and a
lifetime of experiences
-Reinforced by longitudinal research
-Sees aging as a process shaped and influenced by:
-biomedical -science -social behavior
-social class -education -occupational experience

Don’t accept quality of life in old age or meaning of old age as a
matter of destiny BUT individual choice and social policy.
-Must consider factors of gender and ethnicity, cultural
contributions

Modernization Theory (Cockerham 1997)

-status of elderly decreases as society becomes more modern
-urbanization and social mobility disperses families
-technology devalues wisdom or life experiences of the old
-role/status of elderly inversely related to technological progress
-experience more social isolation

Disengagement Theory (Cumming & Henry 1961)

-Older person and society have mutual separation in anticipation of death
(e.g. retirement or decreased activity)
-Loss of roles and energy due to age makes people want to be dismissed
from their social expectations of productivity and competitiveness
-Natural tendency reflecting the biorhythms of life, status must decline as
society becomes more modern and efficient
-Orderly way of transferring power from one generation to the next
-This is functional as it serves both the individual and society
Ex. Older adult with heart disease might have shortness of breath and be
unable to continue walks with friends

Activity and Continuity Theories (Costa & McCrae, 1980)

Activity: Presumes more active = more satisfied with life;
optimal aging = participation in activites, pursuits,
relationships
Social barriers affect decreased interaction, not desires of
elders; try to replace lost roles with new ones
Activity ties to self-concept
Ex. Retired doctor now volunteers at a shelter in support role

Continuity: Grow old = try to maintain internal and external
characteristics despite changes in health or circumstances
Attempt to maintain existing internal and external structure
Any change is best explained by decreased health rather than
some NEED to change roles
Ex. Run for exercise but do it less strenuously or keep in touch
with childhood or college friends

cognitive theory (Rudinger & Thomae, 1990)

Perception of change rather than actual objective
change has the most impact (e.g. retirement seen
as freedom vs loss)

social construction of old age

Sensitive to the contexts of social/cultural factors in understanding the aging
experience
-Old age = created by society
-e.g. adolescence didn’t exist prior to 1900s- people arrived at adult
experiences & responsibilities much earlier
-we construct what it means to be old based on society’s services and products
to sell
-aging is a biological process but what it means to be old is socially constructed
-Create different meanings associated with stages of the life course
-formal: age distinguishes acceptable behavior (e.g. vote, drink)
-informal: ideas of appropriateness (e.g. mini-skirt)

ageism

Stereotyping or discriminating based on age
-Systematic form of oppression
-Roots in Western culture
-Message is that growing old is funny, embarrassing, based largely on decline
-Portrayed in media and culture (e.g. greeting cards)
-Attitudes reinforce discrimination (e.g. firing older workers)
-No mass movement of old to challenge like other movements (e.g. women’s, civil or
gay rights)

Old age in modern society is a “roleless role” (Blau,
1981)
-Seen as freedom vs loss of role?
-In U.S., fear of death is a major source of age bias as
society worships youth

types of ageism

Institutional actions or policies
Interpersonal interactions
Internalized (personally held beliefs about aging and
older people)

some sources of ageism

Media: young news anchors, look younger than actual age, commercials
for age-defying products, photo-shopping
-Workplace: loss of job, stereotypes of older workers despite their
efficiency, reliability and high job satisfaction
-Families: role of “clown”-not old but eccentric, decreased needed space
(e.g. in law apartment)
-Internalized: poking fun/jokes, pretending to be younger than we are,
apologies for being slow

sensory

Vision--from age 30:
 As lens stiffens and thickens, ability to focus declines
 Impaired color discrimination, night vision
 Visual acuity decreases more after 70 years
Hearing—from age 30:
Sensitivity to sound declines
Change twice as fast for men vs women

Smell—from age 60-
 Loss of smell receptors decreases smelling ability
 Touch—gradual-
Loss of touch receptors decreases hand sensitivity,
especially in fingertips

cardiovascular-gradual

Heart muscle becomes more rigid and heart rate decreases, making the heart less
able to meet the body’s oxygen needs when stressed by exercise
 Artery walls stiffen and accumulate plaque, causing decreased blood flow to cells

respiratory-gradual

Physical exertion = respiratory capacity decreases and breathing rate increases
-stiffening of tissue in lungs/chest makes full expansion of lungs difficult

immune-gradual

shrinking of thymus (at base of neck important for white
blood cell development) limits impairs immune response

muscular-gradual

fast-twitch muscle fibers (speed and explosive strength)
decline in number and size
-tendons and ligaments stiffen, causing decreased speed and
flexibility

skeletal

late 30s, accelerates in 50s, slows in 70s-
 cartilage in joints thins, leading bones beneath to
erode
 new cells continue to deposit on outer layer of
bones yet mineral content of bones decline
 broader but more porous bones weaken and are
vulnerable to fracture
 change is more rapid in women than men

reproductive

in women, accelerates after 35; in men,
begins after 40
 fertility problems and risk of having a baby with a
chromosomal disorder

nervous

from 50-
-neurons lose water content and die, mostly in cerebral
cortex (outer layer)
-ventricles enlarge (spaces)
-some compensation by new neurons and synapses

skin

gradual-
 outer and middle layers of skin less tightly held
together, fat cells decline
 skin becomes looser, less elastic and wrinkled
 change more rapid in women than men

hair

from 35-
-grays and thins

height

from 50-
 loss of bone strength leads to collapse of disks in spine
which to a height loss (as much as 2 inches in 70s/80s)

weight

increases to 50, decreases from 60-
-weight change reflects an increase in fat and decrease
in muscle and bone mineral
-muscle and bone are heavier than fat, results in weight
gain then loss

primary aging

Genetically influenced declines that affect all humans and take place even in
context of overall good health (also called biological aging)

secondary aging

Declines due to hereditary and negative environmental influences like poor diet,
lack of exercise, substance abuse, pollution, stress

frailty

weakened functioning of organ and body
systems which interferes with everyday
ability and leave the older adult vulnerable
in the face of infection, extreme weather or
injury
-primary aging can contribute to it but more
so secondary aging contributes

illnesses associated with increased age

leading causes of death among those
65+ in order 2022:
heart disease
Cancer
COVID-19
stroke

diseases impairing functioning

85% older adults have one chronic illness, 60% have two (CDC)
 macular degeneration
 osteoporosis
 arthritis
 osteoarthritis
 rheumatoid arthritis
 type 2 diabetes (diabetes mellitus)
 unintentional injuries
 motor vehicle accidents
 falls (30% 65+, 40% 80+ have had one in the last year)

preventing injury

training that enhances visual and cognitive skills
in the elderly related to driving
 avoid high risk situations like busy intersections
and rush hour traffic
-decrease fall risk
-eyeglasses
-strength and balance training
-improved safety in environment

early adulthood (18-40)

Erikson-Intimacy vs Isolation
 Trying to identify who you are
 Intimacy requires that person give up some of independent self
and make a new self that also includes the partner’s values and
interests
 Those who achieve intimacy are cooperative, tolerant and
accepting of differences

middle adulthood (40-65)

Erikson-Generativity vs Stagnation
 Reaching out to others in way that give to and guide
the next generation
 Generativity includes things that outlive the person and
contribute to society’s improvement: children, ideas,
products, works of art
 The need to be needed, making a contribution
 Being well-adjusted: low in anxiety & depression, high
in autonomy, self-acceptance, and life satisfaction,
have successful marriages and good friendships

late adulthood (65+)

Erikson-Ego Integrity vs Despair
 coming to terms with life, feeling whole,
complete, and satisfied
 view life in terms of larger humanity
 psychosocial maturity brings contentment,
bonds with others and service to society

personality

”Personality is that pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings and
behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists
over time and situations.”
 “pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments and behaviors
consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one’s
expectations, self-perceptions, values and attitudes.” (Winnie &
Gittinger, 1973)
 From Latin: persona meaning mask

trait

according to DSM, personality traits are “enduring
patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the
environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide
range of social and personal contexts.”
-Traits are relatively stable over time
-Traits differ among individuals
-Traits influence behavior

the “big-five” personality traits

Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs
consistent/cautious)
 2. Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs easy-
going/careless)
 3. Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs
solitary/reserved)
 4. Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs
analytical/detached)
 5. Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs
secure/confident)

personality traits

Roots in infant temperament, exist before language develops
 Many theories say most personality development takes place in childhood and
is stable by adolescence
 Set like plaster by age 30
Or…
 Personality traits are open systems influenced by environment
 Most active period of development between 20-40
 Change less likely in later life but always a possibility

Genetics and environment

Genetics plays a role
 Identical twins have more personality traits in
common than fraternal twins
 Genetic framework may be influenced by
environment or life events
 Debate about role of environment in personality
development

mental illness - college survey

National Education Association research in 2023
 90,000 survey participants across 133 US campuses
 Key points:
 Majority of students met criteria for 1 mental health
diagnosis
 Rates of MI were the same among students of all races but
students of color were less likely to seek treatment
 Counseling Centers are overwhelmed

college research continued

44% of respondents reported depression
 37% of respondents reported anxiety
 15% of respondents reported suicidal ideation
 These were the highest rates in the 15 year history of the
survey

personality disorders

From Jan Mitchell, Ph.D., LICSW:
 A specific pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that has the following
characteristics:
 The pattern is enduring over much of the life span beginning in adolescence
(though an individual may not be diagnosed until later in life)
 The pattern is pervasive across personal and social situations
 The pattern differs from the expectations of the culture
 The pattern involves multiple areas of functioning: Thinking, Feeling,
Interpersonal Functioning, Impulse Control
 The pattern leads to clinically significant distress or impairment in social
interactions, occupational areas, finances, planning, safety, etc.

Inability to use insight
 Inability to see their role in their difficulties
 Inability to self-correct behaviors and emotions
 Inability to comply with treatment regimens
 Inability to form trusting relationships
 Cause personal distress or negatively impact those
around them

borderline personality disorder

The prevalence rate is about 1.1% of the general population
 Lack of one’s own identity
 They tend to experience intense mood instability, impulsivity
 They see the world as a rejecting place
 They see themselves as very vulnerable
 They see others as either all good or all bad
 Unstable relationships
 They manage the world with emotional justification

antisocial personality disorder

The prevalence rate is about 1.2% of the general
population
 They tend to exploit others
 It is a “dog-eat-dog” world for them
 They see themselves as superior to others
 They see others as “suckers”
 They deal with the world by being very
opportunistic

narcissistic personality disorder

The prevalence rate is about1% of the general
population
 They over exaggerate their power and self
importance, fantasy of grandiosity
 They view the world as theirs
 They view themselves as very special
 They view others as servants

anxiety

anxiety and worry
 restlessness
 fatigue
 difficulty concentrating or mind going blank
 irritability
 muscle tension
 sleep disturbance

types of anxiety

generalized
 phobias
 panic attacks
 obsessive compulsive disorder
 post-traumatic stress disorder

prevalence of anxiety and depression

Phobias and panic disorder can first appear in
childhood/early adulthood
 Older adults more likely to have GAD
 Changes in brain and nervous system with age might
affect anxiety
 Anxiety and depression more prevalent in 18-39 year olds
(40 & 33% respectively) compared to 40+ year olds (31 &
24% respectively)
 3-3-3 rule

adjustment

Grief
 Loss
 Role adjustment
 physical and mental changes
 housing, belongings
-manifested in depression and anxiety

bipolar disorder

Mania: increased energy, decreased sleep, poor decisions
 Sad or irritable mood for some
 Lacking energy
 Difficulty concentrating or remembering
 Loss of interest in usual activities
 Feeling empty or worthless
 Feelings of guilt or despair
 Feeling pessimistic
 Self-doubt

psychosis

Inability to distinguish reality from fantasy
 Delusions: disturbance of thought, false belief
 Hallucinations: disturbance of perception
 looseness of associations: shifting between unrelated ideas
 flight of ideas: rapid shifting between connected ideas
 compare with confusion (impaired orientation with respect to person, place
and time)

treatment of mental illness

psychotherapy
behavioral interventions
psychiatric medications
ECT
Diet & exercise?